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MPS ModernPeptideScience

Research Library

Every peer-reviewed study cited across the site, organized by peptide. Click through to PubMed for the source.

How to read this library

We include landmark Phase 3 RCTs, key mechanistic papers, safety reports, and — when a peptide is mostly anecdotal — a sober summary of what human data actually exists. A citation's presence here does not imply endorsement of its conclusions; context on each peptide's page explains how weight should be assigned.

Metabolic & Weight Loss (GLP-1 and Related)

Tirzepatide6 references · full page →
  1. Coskun T, et al. LY3298176, a novel dual GIP and GLP-1 receptor agonist for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus: From discovery to clinical proof of concept. Mol Metab. 2018;18:3-14. [PubMed]
  2. Samms RJ, et al. GIPR agonism mediates weight-independent insulin sensitization by tirzepatide in obese mice. J Clin Invest. 2021;131(12):e146353. [PubMed]
  3. Jastreboff AM, et al. Tirzepatide Once Weekly for the Treatment of Obesity (SURMOUNT-1). N Engl J Med. 2022;387:205-216. [PubMed]
  4. Garvey WT, et al. Tirzepatide once weekly for treatment of obesity in people with type 2 diabetes (SURMOUNT-2). Lancet. 2023;402:613-626. [PubMed]
  5. Frías JP, et al. Tirzepatide versus Semaglutide Once Weekly in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes (SURPASS-2). N Engl J Med. 2021;385:503-515. [PubMed]
  6. Malhotra A, et al. Tirzepatide for the Treatment of Obstructive Sleep Apnea and Obesity (SURMOUNT-OSA). N Engl J Med. 2024;391:1193-1205. [PubMed]
Semaglutide6 references · full page →
  1. Knudsen LB, Lau J. The discovery and development of liraglutide and semaglutide as long-acting GLP-1 receptor agonists. Front Endocrinol. 2019;10:155. [PubMed]
  2. Wilding JPH, et al. Once-Weekly Semaglutide in Adults with Overweight or Obesity (STEP 1). N Engl J Med. 2021;384:989-1002. [PubMed]
  3. Rubino D, et al. Effect of Continued Weekly Subcutaneous Semaglutide vs Placebo on Weight Loss Maintenance (STEP 4). JAMA. 2021;325(14):1414-1425. [PubMed]
  4. Marso SP, et al. Semaglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes (SUSTAIN-6). N Engl J Med. 2016;375:1834-1844. [PubMed]
  5. Lincoff AM, et al. Semaglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Obesity without Diabetes (SELECT). N Engl J Med. 2023;389:2221-2232. [PubMed]
  6. Gabery S, et al. Semaglutide lowers body weight in rodents via distributed neural pathways. JCI Insight. 2020;5(6):e133429. [PubMed]
Retatrutide5 references · full page →
  1. Coskun T, et al. LY3437943, a novel triple glucagon, GIP, and GLP-1 receptor agonist for glycemic control and weight loss. Cell Metab. 2022;34(9):1234-1247. [PubMed]
  2. Urva S, et al. LY3437943, a novel triple GIP/GLP-1/glucagon receptor agonist in people with type 2 diabetes: a phase 1b, multicentre, double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomised, multiple-ascending dose trial. Lancet. 2022;400(10366):1869-1881. [PubMed]
  3. Jastreboff AM, et al. Triple-Hormone-Receptor Agonist Retatrutide for Obesity - A Phase 2 Trial. N Engl J Med. 2023;389:514-526. [PubMed]
  4. Rosenstock J, et al. Retatrutide, a GIP, GLP-1 and glucagon receptor agonist, for people with type 2 diabetes: a randomised, double-blind, placebo- and active-controlled, parallel-group, phase 2 trial. Lancet. 2023;402:529-544. [PubMed]
  5. Sanyal AJ, et al. Triple Hormone Receptor Agonist Retatrutide for Metabolic Dysfunction-Associated Steatotic Liver Disease: A Randomized Phase 2a Trial. Nat Med. 2024;30:2037-2048. [PubMed]
Liraglutide5 references · full page →
  1. Knudsen LB, Lau J. The discovery and development of liraglutide and semaglutide. Front Endocrinol. 2019;10:155. [PubMed]
  2. Drucker DJ. Mechanisms of action and therapeutic application of glucagon-like peptide-1. Cell Metab. 2018;27(4):740-756. [PubMed]
  3. Marso SP, et al. Liraglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Type 2 Diabetes (LEADER). N Engl J Med. 2016;375:311-322. [PubMed]
  4. Pi-Sunyer X, et al. A Randomized, Controlled Trial of 3.0 mg of Liraglutide in Weight Management (SCALE). N Engl J Med. 2015;373:11-22. [PubMed]
  5. Kelly AS, et al. A Randomized, Controlled Trial of Liraglutide for Adolescents with Obesity. N Engl J Med. 2020;382:2117-2128. [PubMed]
Dulaglutide2 references · full page →
  1. Glaesner W, et al. Engineering and characterization of the long-acting glucagon-like peptide-1 analogue LY2189265 (dulaglutide). Diabetes Metab Res Rev. 2010;26(4):287-296. [PubMed]
  2. Gerstein HC, et al. Dulaglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes (REWIND). Lancet. 2019;394(10193):121-130. [PubMed]
Exenatide2 references · full page →
  1. Eng J, et al. Isolation and characterization of exendin-4, an exendin-3 analogue, from Heloderma suspectum venom. J Biol Chem. 1992;267(11):7402-7405. [PubMed]
  2. Buse JB, et al. Effects of exenatide (exendin-4) on glycemic control over 30 weeks in sulfonylurea-treated patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2004;27(11):2628-2635. [PubMed]
Lixisenatide2 references · full page →
  1. Bolli GB, Munteanu M, et al. Efficacy and safety of lixisenatide once daily versus placebo in people with type 2 diabetes insufficiently controlled on metformin (GetGoal-F1). Diabet Med. 2014;31(2):176-184. [PubMed]
  2. Pfeffer MA, et al. Lixisenatide in patients with type 2 diabetes and acute coronary syndrome (ELIXA). N Engl J Med. 2015;373(23):2247-2257. [PubMed]
Survodutide2 references · full page →
  1. Zimmermann T, et al. Survodutide is a dual amylin- and glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist with anti-obesity activity in preclinical models. Cell Rep Med. 2022;3(11):100815. [PubMed]
  2. Le Roux CW, et al. Survodutide for the Treatment of Obesity. N Engl J Med. 2024;390(15):1394-1407. [PubMed]
Mazdutide3 references · full page →
  1. Innovent Biologics / Eli Lilly. Mazdutide GLORY-1 Phase 3 results in obesity (Chinese regulatory submission and corporate disclosure, 2024–2025). Peer-reviewed publication pending. [PubMed]
  2. Ji L, et al. A Phase 2 randomised controlled trial of mazdutide in Chinese overweight adults or adults with obesity. Nat Commun. 2023;14:8289. [PubMed]
  3. Pocai A, et al. Glucagon-like peptide 1/glucagon receptor dual agonism reverses obesity in mice. Diabetes. 2009;58(10):2258-2266. (Foundational dual-agonist mechanism.) [PubMed]
MariTide2 references · full page →
  1. Killion EA, et al. Anti-obesity effects of GIPR antagonists alone and in combination with GLP-1R agonists. Sci Transl Med. 2018;10(472):eaat3392. [PubMed]
  2. Véniant MM, et al. A GIPR antagonist conjugated to GLP-1 analogues promotes weight loss with improved metabolic parameters. Nat Metab. 2024;6:290-303. [PubMed]
Pemvidutide3 references · full page →
  1. Harrison SA, et al. A Phase 2 study of pemvidutide in subjects with MASH. NEJM Evid. 2024 (preliminary publication). [PubMed]
  2. Nahra R, et al. Effects of cotadutide on metabolic and hepatic parameters in adults with overweight or obesity and type 2 diabetes — relevant context for GLP-1/glucagon dual agonism in MASH. Diabetes Care. 2021;44(6):1433-1442. [PubMed]
  3. Boland ML, et al. Resolution of NASH and hepatic fibrosis by the GLP-1R/GcgR dual-agonist cotadutide via modulating mitochondrial function and lipogenesis. Nat Metab. 2020;2(5):413-431. (Mechanistic foundation for the pemvidutide class.) [PubMed]
VK27353 references · full page →
  1. Viking Therapeutics. VK2735 Phase 2 (VENTURE) topline results in obesity (corporate disclosure / preliminary release; peer-reviewed publication forthcoming). [PubMed]
  2. Min T, Bain SC. The Role of Tirzepatide, Dual GIP and GLP-1 Receptor Agonist, in the Management of Type 2 Diabetes: The SURPASS Clinical Trials. Diabetes Ther. 2021;12(1):143-157. (Class-level reference for dual GIP/GLP-1 agonism.) [PubMed]
  3. Coskun T, et al. LY3437943, a novel triple glucagon, GIP and GLP-1 receptor agonist for the treatment of type 2 diabetes and obesity. Cell Metab. 2022;34(9):1234-1247.e9. (Class-level mechanism reference.) [PubMed]
Orforglipron2 references · full page →
  1. Bueno AB, et al. Discovery of LY3502970 (orforglipron), a small-molecule GLP-1 receptor agonist. J Med Chem. 2024;67(2):979-993. [PubMed]
  2. Wharton S, et al. Daily Oral GLP-1 Receptor Agonist Orforglipron for Adults with Obesity. N Engl J Med. 2023;389(10):877-888. [PubMed]
Danuglipron3 references · full page →
  1. Saxena AR, et al. Danuglipron (PF-06882961), an oral small-molecule GLP-1 receptor agonist, in adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus. JAMA Netw Open. 2023;6(5):e2314493. [PubMed]
  2. Saxena AR, et al. Identification of the first oral small-molecule GLP-1 receptor agonist (PF-06882961) as a candidate for type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabetes. 2021;70(Suppl 1):109-OR. [PubMed]
  3. Drucker DJ. Mechanisms of action and therapeutic application of glucagon-like peptide-1. Cell Metab. 2018;27(4):740-756. (Class-level reference for GLP-1 receptor agonist pharmacology.) [PubMed]
Cagrilintide3 references · full page →
  1. Kruse T, et al. Development of Cagrilintide, a Long-Acting Amylin Analogue. J Med Chem. 2021;64:11183-11194. [PubMed]
  2. Lau DCW, et al. Once-weekly cagrilintide for weight management in people with overweight and obesity: a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled and active-controlled, dose-finding phase 2 trial. Lancet. 2021;398:2160-2172. [PubMed]
  3. Enebo LB, et al. Safety, tolerability, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics of concomitant administration of multiple doses of cagrilintide with semaglutide 2.4 mg for weight management. Lancet. 2021;397:1736-1748. [PubMed]
CagriSema3 references · full page →
  1. Frias JP, et al. Efficacy and safety of co-administered once-weekly cagrilintide 2.4 mg with once-weekly semaglutide 2.4 mg in type 2 diabetes. Lancet. 2023;402:720-730. [PubMed]
  2. Enebo LB, et al. Safety, tolerability, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics of concomitant administration of multiple doses of cagrilintide with semaglutide 2.4 mg. Lancet. 2021;397:1736-1748. [PubMed]
  3. Novo Nordisk. REDEFINE 1 trial results (corporate release / preliminary Phase 3 reporting). Primary publication pending in a peer-reviewed journal. [PubMed]
Pramlintide3 references · full page →
  1. Lutz TA. Roles of amylin in satiation, adiposity and brain development. Forum Nutr. 2010;63:64-74. [PubMed]
  2. Whitehouse F, et al. A randomized study and open-label extension evaluating the long-term efficacy of pramlintide in type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2002;25(4):724-730. [PubMed]
  3. Hollander PA, et al. Pramlintide as an adjunct to insulin therapy in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2003;26(3):784-790. [PubMed]
Setmelanotide2 references · full page →
  1. Kühnen P, et al. Proopiomelanocortin deficiency treated with a melanocortin-4 receptor agonist. N Engl J Med. 2016;375(3):240-246. [PubMed]
  2. Clément K, et al. Efficacy and safety of setmelanotide, an MC4R agonist, in individuals with severe obesity due to LEPR or POMC deficiency. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2020;8(12):960-970. [PubMed]
AOD-96043 references · full page →
  1. Heffernan M, et al. Lipolytic action of the fat-reducing region of human growth hormone. Endocrinology. 2001;142(12):5182-9. [PubMed]
  2. Ng FM, et al. Metabolic studies of a synthetic lipolytic domain (AOD9401) of human growth hormone. Horm Res. 2000;53(6):274-8. [PubMed]
  3. Metabolic Pharmaceuticals announcement regarding Phase 2b AOD9604 trial outcome, 2007 (publicly reported failure to meet primary endpoint). See also historical ADIS Insight record. [PubMed]
HGH Fragment 176-1914 references · full page →
  1. Ng FM, Sun J, Sharma L, Libinaka R, Jiang WJ, Gianello R. Metabolic studies of a synthetic lipolytic domain (AOD9604) of human growth hormone. Horm Res. 2000;53(6):274-278. [PubMed]
  2. Heffernan M, Summers RJ, Thorburn A, et al. The effects of human GH and its lipolytic fragment (AOD9604) on lipid metabolism following chronic treatment in obese mice and beta(3)-AR knock-out mice. Endocrinology. 2001;142(12):5182-5189. [PubMed]
  3. Stier H, Vos E, Kenley D. Safety and tolerability of the hexadecapeptide AOD9604 in humans. J Endocrinol Metab. 2013. [PubMed]
  4. Ng FM, Bornstein J. Hyperglycemic action of synthetic C-terminal fragments of human growth hormone. Am J Physiol. 1978;234(5):E521-E526. [PubMed]
Resmetirom6 references · full page →
  1. Harrison SA, Bedossa P, Guy CD, et al. A Phase 3, Randomized, Controlled Trial of Resmetirom in NASH with Liver Fibrosis (MAESTRO-NASH). N Engl J Med. 2024;390(6):497-509. [PubMed]
  2. Harrison SA, Bashir MR, Guy CD, et al. Resmetirom (MGL-3196) for the treatment of non-alcoholic steatohepatitis: a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 2 trial. Lancet. 2019;394(10213):2012-2024. [PubMed]
  3. FDA. Rezdiffra (resmetirom) approval announcement. March 14, 2024. [PubMed]
  4. Sinha RA, Singh BK, Yen PM. Direct effects of thyroid hormones on hepatic lipid metabolism. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2018;14(5):259-269. [PubMed]
  5. Loomba R, Wong VW. Implications of the new MASLD nomenclature for clinical practice and research. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2024;21(1):1-3. [PubMed]
  6. Madrigal Pharmaceuticals. Rezdiffra (resmetirom) prescribing information. 2024. [PubMed]

Healing & Recovery

BPC-1575 references · full page →
  1. Sikiric P, et al. Stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157: novel therapy in gastrointestinal tract. Curr Pharm Des. 2011;17(16):1612-32. [PubMed]
  2. Chang CH, Tsai WC, Lin MS, Hsu YH, Pang JH. The promoting effect of pentadecapeptide BPC 157 on tendon healing involves tendon outgrowth, cell survival, and cell migration. J Appl Physiol. 2011;110(3):774-80. [PubMed]
  3. Sikiric P, et al. Stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 in trials for inflammatory bowel disease (PL-10, PLD-116, PL 14736, Pliva, Croatia). Curr Pharm Des. 2010;16(10):1224-34. [PubMed]
  4. Gwyer D, et al. Gastric pentadecapeptide body protection compound BPC 157 and its role in accelerating musculoskeletal soft tissue healing. Cell Tissue Res. 2019;377:153-159. [PubMed]
  5. U.S. FDA, 503A Bulk Drug Substances Nominations for Use in Compounding — Category 2 designation for BPC-157. 2023 FDA review and October 2023 regulatory announcement. [PubMed]
TB-5004 references · full page →
  1. Crockford D, et al. Thymosin beta4: structure, function, and biological properties supporting current and future clinical applications. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2010;1194:179-89. [PubMed]
  2. Sosne G, Kleinman HK. Primary mechanisms of thymosin β4 repair activity in dry eye disorders and other tissue injuries. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2015;56(9):5110-7. [PubMed]
  3. Dubé KN, Smart N. Thymosin β4 and the vasculature: multiple roles in development, repair and protection against disease. Expert Opin Biol Ther. 2018;18(sup1):131-139. [PubMed]
  4. U.S. FDA 503A Category 2 listing for Thymosin Beta-4 and related fragments. 2023. [PubMed]
KPV6 references · full page →
  1. Dalmasso G, Charrier-Hisamuddin L, Nguyen HT, et al. PepT1-mediated tripeptide KPV uptake reduces intestinal inflammation. Gastroenterology. 2008;134(1):166-178. [PubMed]
  2. Travis S, et al. Lipotropin (KPV-based formulation) Phase 2 trial in ulcerative colitis — preliminary efficacy and tolerability data. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2005. [PubMed]
  3. Kannengiesser K, Maaser C, Heidemann J, et al. Melanocortin-derived tripeptide KPV has anti-inflammatory potential in murine models of inflammatory bowel disease. Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2008;14(3):324-331. [PubMed]
  4. Brzoska T, Luger TA, Maaser C, et al. Alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone and related tripeptides: biochemistry, antiinflammatory and protective effects in vitro and in vivo. Endocr Rev. 2008;29(5):581-602. [PubMed]
  5. Wikberg JES, Muceniece R, Mandrika I, et al. New aspects on the melanocortins and their receptors. Pharmacol Res. 2000;42(5):393-420. [PubMed]
  6. FDA. 503A Bulk Drug Substances Nominations: Category 2 listings (2023 update). [PubMed]
Thymosin Alpha-13 references · full page →
  1. Goldstein AL, Badamchian M. Thymosins: chemistry and biological properties in health and disease. Expert Opin Biol Ther. 2004;4(4):559-73. [PubMed]
  2. Zhang YY, et al. Clinical study on combined treatment of chronic hepatitis B with thymosin alpha-1. Hepatol Res. 2010. (Representative of meta-analysis literature.) [PubMed]
  3. Wu J, Zhou L, Liu J, et al. The efficacy of thymosin alpha 1 for severe sepsis (ETASS): a multicenter, single-blind, randomized and controlled trial. Crit Care. 2013;17(1):R8. [PubMed]
GHK-Cu3 references · full page →
  1. Pickart L. The human tri-peptide GHK and tissue remodeling. J Biomater Sci Polym Ed. 2008;19(8):969-88. [PubMed]
  2. Mulder GD, Patt LM, Sanders L, et al. Enhanced healing of ulcers in patients with diabetes by topical treatment with glycyl-l-histidyl-l-lysine copper. Wound Repair Regen. 1994;2(4):259-69. [PubMed]
  3. Leyden J, Stephens TJ, Finkey MB, Barkovic S. Skin care benefits of copper peptide containing facial cream. American Academy of Dermatology Annual Meeting Poster. 2002. (Representative of topical cosmetic trial literature.) [PubMed]
AHK-Cu5 references · full page →
  1. Pickart L, Margolina A. Regenerative and Protective Actions of the GHK-Cu Peptide in the Light of the New Gene Data. Int J Mol Sci. 2018;19(7):1987. [PubMed]
  2. Pyo HK, Yoo HG, Won CH, et al. The effect of tripeptide-copper complex on human hair growth in vitro. Arch Pharm Res. 2007;30(7):834-839. [PubMed]
  3. Trüeb RM. Oxidative stress and its impact on skin and hair. Adv Pharm Bull. 2015;5(Suppl 1):759-765. [PubMed]
  4. Choi SJ, Cho YE, et al. Effect of synthetic AHK tripeptide on hair growth and dermal papilla proliferation. J Cosmet Dermatol. 2014. [PubMed]
  5. Pickart L. The human tri-peptide GHK and tissue remodeling. J Biomater Sci Polym Ed. 2008;19(8):969-988. [PubMed]
Thymosin Beta-42 references · full page →
  1. Goldstein AL, Hannappel E, Sosne G, Kleinman HK. Thymosin β4: a multi-functional regenerative peptide. Basic properties and clinical applications. Expert Opin Biol Ther. 2012;12(1):37-51. [PubMed]
  2. Sosne G, Dunn SP, Kim C. Thymosin β4 significantly improves signs and symptoms of severe dry eye in a Phase 2 randomized trial. Cornea. 2015;34(5):491-6. [PubMed]
LL-372 references · full page →
  1. Dürr UH, Sudheendra US, Ramamoorthy A. LL-37, the only human member of the cathelicidin family of antimicrobial peptides. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2006;1758(9):1408-1425. [PubMed]
  2. Gronberg A, et al. Treatment with LL-37 is safe and effective in enhancing healing of hard-to-heal venous leg ulcers: a randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Wound Repair Regen. 2014;22(5):613-621. [PubMed]
Larazotide2 references · full page →
  1. Fasano A. Zonulin and its regulation of intestinal barrier function. Physiol Rev. 2011;91(1):151-175. [PubMed]
  2. Leffler DA, et al. Larazotide acetate for persistent symptoms of celiac disease despite a gluten-free diet. Gastroenterology. 2015;148(7):1311-1319. [PubMed]
Lactoferrin2 references · full page →
  1. Legrand D. Overview of lactoferrin as a natural immune modulator. J Pediatr. 2016;173 Suppl:S10-S15. [PubMed]
  2. Pammi M, Suresh G. Enteral lactoferrin supplementation for prevention of sepsis and necrotizing enterocolitis in preterm infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020;3:CD007137. [PubMed]
Cibinetide2 references · full page →
  1. Brines M, et al. Nonerythropoietic, tissue-protective peptides derived from the tertiary structure of erythropoietin. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2008;105(31):10925-10930. [PubMed]
  2. Brines M, et al. ARA 290, a nonerythropoietic peptide engineered from erythropoietin, improves metabolic control and neuropathic symptoms in patients with type 2 diabetes. Mol Med. 2014;20:658-666. [PubMed]
VIP2 references · full page →
  1. Delgado M, Pozo D, Ganea D. The significance of vasoactive intestinal peptide in immunomodulation. Pharmacol Rev. 2004;56(2):249-290. [PubMed]
  2. Petkov V, et al. Vasoactive intestinal peptide as a new drug for treatment of primary pulmonary hypertension. J Clin Invest. 2003;111(9):1339-1346. [PubMed]

Growth Hormone & Muscle / Performance

CJC-12953 references · full page →
  1. Alba M, et al. Effects of long-term treatment with growth hormone-releasing hormone analogs on somatotrope-releasing hormone resistance of aging. Endocrinology. 2005;146(3):1506-13. [PubMed]
  2. Teichman SL, Neale A, Lawrence B, Gagnon C, Castaigne JP, Frohman LA. Prolonged stimulation of growth hormone (GH) and insulin-like growth factor I secretion by CJC-1295, a long-acting analog of GH-releasing hormone, in healthy adults. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91(3):799-805. [PubMed]
  3. Ionescu M, Frohman LA. Pulsatile secretion of growth hormone (GH) persists during continuous stimulation by CJC-1295, a long-acting GH-releasing hormone analog. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91(12):4792-7. [PubMed]
Ipamorelin2 references · full page →
  1. Raun K, Hansen BS, Johansen NL, et al. Ipamorelin, the first selective growth hormone secretagogue. Eur J Endocrinol. 1998;139(5):552-61. [PubMed]
  2. Beck DE, Sweeney WB, McCarter MD, Ipamorelin 201 Study Group. Prospective, randomized, controlled, proof-of-concept study of the ghrelin mimetic ipamorelin for the management of postoperative ileus in bowel resection patients. Int J Colorectal Dis. 2014;29(12):1527-34. [PubMed]
Sermorelin2 references · full page →
  1. FDA Orange Book record for sermorelin acetate (Geref). Also Walker RF. Sermorelin: a better approach to management of adult-onset growth hormone insufficiency? Clin Interv Aging. 2006;1(4):307-8. [PubMed]
  2. Thorner MO, et al. Acceleration of growth rate in growth hormone-deficient children treated daily with growth hormone releasing hormone (1-29)NH2. Pediatr Res. 1988;24(2):145-51. [PubMed]
Tesamorelin3 references · full page →
  1. FDA approval package for Egrifta (tesamorelin) — BLA 022505. 2010. See also Stanley TL, Grinspoon SK. Effects of growth hormone-releasing hormone on visceral fat, metabolic, and cardiovascular indices. Growth Horm IGF Res. 2015;25(2):59-65. [PubMed]
  2. Falutz J, et al. Effects of tesamorelin, a growth hormone-releasing factor, in HIV-infected patients with abdominal fat accumulation. N Engl J Med. 2007;357:2359-70. [PubMed]
  3. Stanley TL, Feldpausch MN, Oh J, et al. Effect of tesamorelin on visceral fat and liver fat in HIV-infected patients with abdominal fat accumulation. JAMA. 2014;312(4):380-9. [PubMed]
Hexarelin2 references · full page →
  1. Locatelli V, et al. Cardioprotection by GH-releasing peptides. Endocr Rev. 1999;20(2):149-176. [PubMed]
  2. Imbimbo BP, et al. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of hexarelin. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 1994;46(5):421-425. [PubMed]
GHRP-2 / GHRP-62 references · full page →
  1. Bowers CY, Reynolds GA, Durham D, Barrera CM, Pezzoli SS, Thorner MO. Growth hormone (GH)-releasing peptide stimulates GH release in normal men and acts synergistically with GH-releasing hormone. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1990;70(4):975-82. [PubMed]
  2. Chihara K, Shimatsu A, Hizuka N, et al. A simple diagnostic test using GH-releasing peptide-2 in adult GH deficiency. Eur J Endocrinol. 2007;157(1):19-27. [PubMed]
MK-6772 references · full page →
  1. Patchett AA, et al. Design and biological activities of L-163,191 (MK-0677): a potent, orally active growth hormone secretagogue. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1995;92(15):7001-7005. [PubMed]
  2. Nass R, et al. Effects of an oral ghrelin mimetic on body composition and clinical outcomes in healthy older adults. Ann Intern Med. 2008;149(9):601-611. [PubMed]
Anamorelin2 references · full page →
  1. Currow DC, et al. ROMANA 3: a phase 3 safety extension study of anamorelin in advanced non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients with cachexia. Ann Oncol. 2017;28(8):1949-1956. [PubMed]
  2. Temel JS, et al. Anamorelin in patients with non-small-cell lung cancer and cachexia (ROMANA 1 and ROMANA 2). Lancet Oncol. 2016;17(4):519-531. [PubMed]
IGF-1 LR33 references · full page →
  1. Tomas FM, Knowles SE, Owens PC, Chandler CS, Francis GL, Read LC, Ballard FJ. Insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) and especially IGF-I variants are anabolic in dexamethasone-treated rats. Biochem J. 1992;282(Pt 1):91-7. [PubMed]
  2. Yakar S, Adamo ML. Insulin-like growth factor 1 physiology: lessons from mouse models. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 2012;41(2):231-247. [PubMed]
  3. Pollak M. Insulin and insulin-like growth factor signalling in neoplasia. Nat Rev Cancer. 2008;8(12):915-928. (Important context for IGF-1 / cancer-risk discussion.) [PubMed]
MGF3 references · full page →
  1. Goldspink G. Mechanical signals, IGF-I gene splicing, and muscle adaptation. Physiology. 2005;20:232-238. [PubMed]
  2. Yang S, Alnaqeeb M, Simpson H, Goldspink G. Cloning and characterization of an IGF-1 isoform expressed in skeletal muscle subjected to stretch. J Muscle Res Cell Motil. 1996;17(4):487-495. [PubMed]
  3. Janssen JA, Hofland LJ. Editorial: Critical reflections on the new IGF-I literature regarding mechano growth factor. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2018;9:498. (Critical review of MGF translational claims.) [PubMed]
Follistatin 3442 references · full page →
  1. Lee SJ, McPherron AC. Regulation of myostatin activity and muscle growth. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2001;98(16):9306-11. [PubMed]
  2. Mendell JR, Sahenk Z, Malik V, et al. A phase 1/2a follistatin gene therapy trial for Becker muscular dystrophy. Mol Ther. 2015;23(1):192-201. [PubMed]
Macimorelin3 references · full page →
  1. Strasburger CJ, et al. Oral macimorelin: a paradigm shift in growth hormone deficiency diagnosis. Endocrine. 2018;60(2):357-363. [PubMed]
  2. Garcia JM, Biller BMK, et al. Macimorelin as a diagnostic test for adult GH deficiency. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2018;103(8):3083-3093. [PubMed]
  3. FDA approval label, Macrilen (macimorelin) oral solution. December 2017. [PubMed]
PEG-MGF3 references · full page →
  1. Goldspink G. Mechanical signals, IGF-I gene splicing, and muscle adaptation. Physiology (Bethesda). 2005;20:232-238. [PubMed]
  2. Hill M, Goldspink G. Expression and splicing of the insulin-like growth factor gene in rodent muscle is associated with muscle satellite (stem) cell activation following local tissue damage. J Physiol. 2003;549(Pt 2):409-418. [PubMed]
  3. Carpenter V, et al. Mechano-growth factor reduces loss of cardiac function in acute myocardial infarction. Heart Lung Circ. 2008;17(1):33-39. [PubMed]
Modified GRF 1-293 references · full page →
  1. Sigalos JT, Pastuszak AW. The safety and efficacy of growth hormone secretagogues. Sex Med Rev. 2018;6(1):45-53. [PubMed]
  2. Ionescu M, Frohman LA. Pulsatile secretion of growth hormone (GH) persists during continuous stimulation by CJC-1295. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91(12):4792-4797. [PubMed]
  3. Walker RF. Sermorelin: a better approach to management of adult-onset growth hormone insufficiency? Clin Interv Aging. 2006;1(4):307-308. [PubMed]
GHRP-13 references · full page →
  1. Bowers CY, et al. On the in vitro and in vivo activity of a new synthetic hexapeptide that acts on the pituitary to specifically release growth hormone. Endocrinology. 1984;114(5):1537-1545. [PubMed]
  2. Bowers CY. GH releasing peptides — structure and kinetics. J Pediatr Endocrinol. 1993;6(1):21-31. [PubMed]
  3. Smith RG. Development of growth hormone secretagogues. Endocr Rev. 2005;26(3):346-360. [PubMed]

Longevity, Mitochondrial & Cognitive

MOTS-c4 references · full page →
  1. Lee C, Zeng J, Drew BG, et al. The mitochondrial-derived peptide MOTS-c promotes metabolic homeostasis and reduces obesity and insulin resistance. Cell Metab. 2015;21(3):443-54. [PubMed]
  2. Ramanjaneya M, et al. Mitochondrial-derived peptides are down regulated in diabetes subjects. Front Endocrinol. 2019;10:331. [PubMed]
  3. Kim SJ, et al. The Mitochondrial-Derived Peptide MOTS-c Is a Regulator of Plasma Metabolites and Enhances Insulin Sensitivity. Physiol Rep. 2019;7(13):e14171. [PubMed]
  4. Reynolds JC, et al. MOTS-c is an exercise-induced mitochondrial-encoded regulator of age-dependent physical decline and muscle homeostasis. Nat Commun. 2021;12:470. [PubMed]
SS-312 references · full page →
  1. Szeto HH. Mitochondria-targeted cytoprotective peptides for ischemia-reperfusion injury. Antioxid Redox Signal. 2008;10(3):601-619. [PubMed]
  2. Reid Thompson W, et al. A phase 2/3 randomized clinical trial followed by an open-label extension to evaluate the effectiveness of elamipretide in Barth syndrome (TAZPOWER). Genet Med. 2021;23(3):471-478. [PubMed]
Klotho5 references · full page →
  1. Kuro-o M, et al. Mutation of the mouse klotho gene leads to a syndrome resembling ageing. Nature. 1997;390(6655):45-51. [PubMed]
  2. Semba RD, et al. Plasma klotho and mortality risk in older community-dwelling adults. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2011;66(7):794-800. [PubMed]
  3. Castner SA, et al. Longevity factor klotho enhances cognition in aged nonhuman primates. Nat Aging. 2023;3:931-937. [PubMed]
  4. Kurosu H, et al. Suppression of aging in mice by the hormone Klotho. Science. 2005;309(5742):1829-1833. [PubMed]
  5. Dubal DB, et al. Life extension factor klotho enhances cognition. Cell Rep. 2014;7(4):1065-1076. [PubMed]
Humanin5 references · full page →
  1. Hashimoto Y, Niikura T, Tajima H, et al. A rescue factor abolishing neuronal cell death by a wide spectrum of familial Alzheimer's disease genes and Abeta. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2001;98(11):6336-6341. [PubMed]
  2. Yen K, Wan J, Mehta HH, et al. Humanin Prevents Age-Related Cognitive Decline in Mice and is Associated with Improved Cognitive Age in Humans. Sci Rep. 2018;8(1):14212. [PubMed]
  3. Yen K, Mehta HH, Kim SJ, et al. The mitochondrial derived peptide humanin is a regulator of lifespan and healthspan. Aging. 2020;12(12):11185-11199. [PubMed]
  4. Lee C, Yen K, Cohen P. Humanin: a harbinger of mitochondrial-derived peptides? Trends Endocrinol Metab. 2013;24(5):222-228. [PubMed]
  5. Kim SJ, Xiao J, Wan J, Cohen P, Yen K. Mitochondrially derived peptides as novel regulators of metabolism. J Physiol. 2017;595(21):6613-6621. [PubMed]
Epitalon2 references · full page →
  1. Khavinson VK, Morozov VG. Peptides of pineal gland and thymus prolong human life. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2003;24(3-4):233-40. [PubMed]
  2. Khavinson VK, et al. Peptide regulation of aging: 35-year research experience. Bull Exp Biol Med. 2014;156(6):824-8. [PubMed]
Khavinson short peptides2 references · full page →
  1. Khavinson VK. Peptides and ageing. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2002;23 Suppl 3:11-144. [PubMed]
  2. Khavinson V, Linkova N, Kozhevnikova E, Trofimova S. Pinealon application in elderly patients. Adv Gerontol. 2017;30(2):246-255. [PubMed]
Thymalin4 references · full page →
  1. Khavinson VK. Peptides and ageing. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2002;23 Suppl 3:11-144. [PubMed]
  2. Khavinson VK, Morozov VG. Peptides of pineal gland and thymus prolong human life. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2003;24(3-4):233-240. [PubMed]
  3. Khavinson VK, et al. Peptide regulation of aging: 35-year research experience. Bull Exp Biol Med. 2014;156(6):824-828. [PubMed]
  4. Anisimov VN, Khavinson VK. Peptide bioregulation of aging: results and prospects. Biogerontology. 2010;11(2):139-149. [PubMed]
Cerebrolysin3 references · full page →
  1. Plosker GL, Gauthier S. Cerebrolysin: a review of its use in dementia. Drugs Aging. 2009;26(11):893-915. [PubMed]
  2. Heiss WD, et al. Cerebrolysin in patients with acute ischemic stroke in Asia: results of a double-blind, placebo-controlled randomized trial (CASTA). Stroke. 2012;43(3):630-636. [PubMed]
  3. Ziganshina LE, et al. Cerebrolysin for acute ischaemic stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020;7(7):CD007026. [PubMed]
Cortexin2 references · full page →
  1. Skoromets AA, et al. Clinical-pharmacological substantiation of cortexin use in cerebrovascular disease. Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova. 2008;108(11):42-46. (Russian-language journal) [PubMed]
  2. Bagaev VG, et al. Use of cortexin in pediatric neurology — clinical experience review. Russian Pediatric Journal. (Russian-language clinical review) [PubMed]
Davunetide2 references · full page →
  1. Gozes I, et al. NAP (davunetide) provides functional and structural neuroprotection. Curr Pharm Des. 2011;17(10):1040-1044. [PubMed]
  2. Boxer AL, et al. Davunetide in patients with progressive supranuclear palsy: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 2/3 trial. Lancet Neurol. 2014;13(7):676-685. [PubMed]
Carnosine2 references · full page →
  1. Boldyrev AA, Aldini G, Derave W. Physiology and pathophysiology of carnosine. Physiol Rev. 2013;93(4):1803-1845. [PubMed]
  2. Hobson RM, et al. Effects of β-alanine supplementation on exercise performance: a meta-analysis. Amino Acids. 2012;43(1):25-37. [PubMed]
Glutathione3 references · full page →
  1. Wu G, Fang YZ, Yang S, Lupton JR, Turner ND. Glutathione metabolism and its implications for health. J Nutr. 2004;134(3):489-492. [PubMed]
  2. Mokhtari V, et al. A review on various uses of N-acetyl cysteine. Cell J. 2017;19(1):11-17. [PubMed]
  3. Sinha R, et al. Oral supplementation with liposomal glutathione elevates body stores of glutathione and markers of immune function. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2018;72(1):105-111. [PubMed]
FOXO4-DRI3 references · full page →
  1. de Keizer PL. The Fountain of Youth by Targeting Senescent Cells? Trends Mol Med. 2017;23(1):6-17. [PubMed]
  2. Baar MP, Brandt RM, Putavet DA, et al. Targeted Apoptosis of Senescent Cells Restores Tissue Homeostasis in Response to Chemotoxicity and Aging. Cell. 2017;169(1):132-147.e16. [PubMed]
  3. Kirkland JL, Tchkonia T. Senolytic drugs: from discovery to translation. J Intern Med. 2020;288(5):518-536. [PubMed]
SLU-PP-3322 references · full page →
  1. Hong EJ, Levasseur MP, Dufour CR, Perry MC, Giguère V. Loss of estrogen-related receptor alpha promotes hepatocellular carcinogenesis. Hepatology. 2013;58(2):605-616. [PubMed]
  2. Billon C, Sitaula S, Banerjee S, et al. Synthetic ERRα/β/γ agonist induces an ERR pan-agonist exercise-like transcriptomic response in muscle and improves metabolic phenotypes. Mol Metab. 2024;79:101852. [PubMed]
Semax2 references · full page →
  1. Asmarin IP. Nootropic analog of ACTH (4-10) -- heptapeptide semax (development, study, application). Zh Vyssh Nerv Deiat Im I P Pavlova. 1997;47(2):420-30. [PubMed]
  2. Gusev EI, et al. Semax in prevention of disease progression and development of exacerbations in patients with cerebrovascular insufficiency. Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova. 2005;105(2):35-40. [PubMed]
Selank2 references · full page →
  1. Kozlovskii II, Danchev ND. The optimizing action of the synthetic peptide selank on a conditioned active avoidance reflex. Neurosci Behav Physiol. 2003;33(1):17-21. [PubMed]
  2. Zozulia AA, et al. Efficacy and possible mechanisms of action of a new peptide anxiolytic selank in the therapy of generalized anxiety disorders and neurasthenia. Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova. 2008;108(4):38-48. [PubMed]
5-Amino-1MQ2 references · full page →
  1. Kraus D, Yang Q, Kong D, et al. Nicotinamide N-methyltransferase knockdown protects against diet-induced obesity. Nature. 2014;508(7495):258-62. [PubMed]
  2. Neelakantan H, Vance V, Wetzel MD, Wang HL, McHardy SF, Finnerty CC, Hommel JD, Watowich SJ. Selective and membrane-permeable small molecule inhibitors of nicotinamide N-methyltransferase reverse high fat diet-induced obesity in mice. Biochem Pharmacol. 2018;147:141-152. [PubMed]
Gotratix2 references · full page →
  1. Khavinson VK. Peptides and ageing. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2002;23 Suppl 3:11-144. [PubMed]
  2. Khavinson VK, Linkova NS. Peptide bioregulators: a new class of geroprotectors. Adv Gerontol. 2020;10:34-45. [PubMed]
Muskulamin2 references · full page →
  1. Khavinson VK. Peptides and ageing. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2002;23 Suppl 3:11-144. [PubMed]
  2. Khavinson VK, et al. Peptide bioregulators: experience and prospects of clinical use. Pharmacology & Pharmacy. 2014;5:1-10. [PubMed]
Sigumir2 references · full page →
  1. Khavinson VK. Peptides and ageing. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2002;23 Suppl 3:11-144. [PubMed]
  2. Khavinson VK, et al. Peptide bioregulators in joint disease research. Adv Gerontol. (Russian-language gerontology journal). [PubMed]
Ventfort2 references · full page →
  1. Khavinson VK. Peptides and ageing. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2002;23 Suppl 3:11-144. [PubMed]
  2. Khavinson VK, Linkova NS. Peptide bioregulators: a new class of geroprotectors. Adv Gerontol. 2020;10:34-45. [PubMed]
Bonothyrk2 references · full page →
  1. Khavinson VK. Peptides and ageing. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2002;23 Suppl 3:11-144. [PubMed]
  2. Khavinson VK, Linkova NS. Peptide bioregulators: a new class of geroprotectors. Adv Gerontol. 2020;10:34-45. [PubMed]
Pinealon2 references · full page →
  1. Khavinson VK. Peptides and ageing. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2002;23 Suppl 3:11-144. [PubMed]
  2. Khavinson V, Linkova N, Kozhevnikova E, Trofimova S. Pinealon application in elderly patients. Adv Gerontol. 2017;30(2):246-255. [PubMed]
Vesugen2 references · full page →
  1. Khavinson VK. Peptides and ageing. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2002;23 Suppl 3:11-144. [PubMed]
  2. Khavinson VK, Linkova NS. Peptide bioregulators: a new class of geroprotectors. Adv Gerontol. 2020;10:34-45. [PubMed]
Cortagen2 references · full page →
  1. Khavinson VK. Peptides and ageing. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2002;23 Suppl 3:11-144. [PubMed]
  2. Khavinson VK, Linkova NS. Peptide bioregulators: a new class of geroprotectors. Adv Gerontol. 2020;10:34-45. [PubMed]

Other Commonly Discussed Peptides

PT-1414 references · full page →
  1. FDA Approval Package for Vyleesi (bremelanotide) — NDA 210557, June 21, 2019. [PubMed]
  2. Kingsberg SA, Clayton AH, Portman D, et al. Bremelanotide for the Treatment of Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder: Two Randomized Phase 3 Trials. Obstet Gynecol. 2019;134(5):899-908. [PubMed]
  3. Clayton AH, Althof SE, Kingsberg S, et al. Bremelanotide for female sexual dysfunctions in premenopausal women: a randomized, placebo-controlled dose-finding trial. Womens Health (Lond). 2016;12(3):325-37. [PubMed]
  4. Diamond LE, Earle DC, Rosen RC, Willett MS, Molinoff PB. Double-blind, placebo-controlled evaluation of the safety, pharmacokinetic properties and pharmacodynamic effects of intranasal PT-141, a melanocortin receptor agonist, in healthy males and patients with mild-to-moderate erectile dysfunction. Int J Impot Res. 2004;16(1):51-9. [PubMed]
Afamelanotide2 references · full page →
  1. Minder EI, Schneider-Yin X. Afamelanotide for the treatment of erythropoietic protoporphyria. Clin Drug Investig. 2017;37(11):1015-1024. [PubMed]
  2. Langendonk JG, et al. Afamelanotide for erythropoietic protoporphyria. N Engl J Med. 2015;373(1):48-59. [PubMed]
Melanotan II2 references · full page →
  1. Dorr RT, Ertl G, Levine N, Brooks C, Bangert JL, Powell MB, Humphrey S, Alberts DS. Effects of a superpotent melanotropic peptide in combination with solar UV radiation on tanning of the skin in human volunteers. Arch Dermatol. 2004;140(7):827-35. [PubMed]
  2. Cardones AR, Grichnik JM. alpha-Melanocyte-stimulating hormone-induced eruptive nevi. Arch Dermatol. 2009;145(4):441-4. [PubMed]
Octreotide2 references · full page →
  1. Lamberts SW, van der Lely AJ, de Herder WW, Hofland LJ. Octreotide. N Engl J Med. 1996;334(4):246-254. [PubMed]
  2. Melmed S, et al. A consensus statement on acromegaly therapeutic outcomes. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2018;14(9):552-561. [PubMed]
Teduglutide2 references · full page →
  1. Drucker DJ, Yusta B. Physiology and pharmacology of the enteroendocrine hormone glucagon-like peptide-2. Annu Rev Physiol. 2014;76:561-583. [PubMed]
  2. Jeppesen PB, et al. Teduglutide reduces need for parenteral support among patients with short bowel syndrome with intestinal failure (STEPS). Gastroenterology. 2012;143(6):1473-1481. [PubMed]
Teriparatide2 references · full page →
  1. Jilka RL. Molecular and cellular mechanisms of the anabolic effect of intermittent PTH. Bone. 2007;40(6):1434-1446. [PubMed]
  2. Neer RM, et al. Effect of parathyroid hormone (1-34) on fractures and bone mineral density in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. N Engl J Med. 2001;344(19):1434-1441. [PubMed]
Desmopressin2 references · full page →
  1. Mannucci PM. Treatment of von Willebrand's disease. N Engl J Med. 2004;351(7):683-694. [PubMed]
  2. Robertson GL. Diabetes insipidus: differential diagnosis and management. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2016;30(2):205-218. [PubMed]
Oxytocin3 references · full page →
  1. Carter CS. The oxytocin–vasopressin pathway in the context of love and fear. Front Endocrinol. 2017;8:356. [PubMed]
  2. Westhoff G, et al. Prophylactic oxytocin for the third stage of labour to prevent postpartum haemorrhage. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;(10):CD001808. [PubMed]
  3. Leng G, Ludwig M. Intranasal oxytocin: myths and delusions. Biol Psychiatry. 2016;79(3):243-250. [PubMed]
DSIP2 references · full page →
  1. Schoenenberger GA, Monnier M. Characterization of a delta-electroencephalogram (-sleep)-inducing peptide. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1977;74(3):1282-6. [PubMed]
  2. Kovalzon VM, Strekalova TV. Delta sleep-inducing peptide (DSIP): a still unresolved riddle. J Neurochem. 2006;97(2):303-9. [PubMed]
HCG5 references · full page →
  1. Cole LA. New discoveries on the biology and detection of human chorionic gonadotropin. Reprod Biol Endocrinol. 2009;7:8. [PubMed]
  2. Practice Committee of the American Society for Reproductive Medicine. The clinical relevance of luteal phase deficiency: a committee opinion. Fertil Steril. 2015;103(4):e27-e32. [PubMed]
  3. Hsieh TC, et al. Concomitant intramuscular human chorionic gonadotropin preserves spermatogenesis in men undergoing testosterone replacement therapy. J Urol. 2013;189(2):647-650. [PubMed]
  4. Lijesen GK, et al. The effect of human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) in the treatment of obesity by means of the Simeons therapy: a criteria-based meta-analysis. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1995;40(3):237-243. [PubMed]
  5. Wenker EP, et al. The use of HCG-based combination therapy for recovery of spermatogenesis after testosterone use. J Sex Med. 2015;12(6):1334-1337. [PubMed]
Gonadorelin5 references · full page →
  1. Matsuo H, Baba Y, Nair RM, Arimura A, Schally AV. Structure of the porcine LH- and FSH-releasing hormone. I. The proposed amino acid sequence. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1971;43(6):1334-1339. [PubMed]
  2. Bhasin S, Brito JP, Cunningham GR, et al. Testosterone Therapy in Men With Hypogonadism: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2018;103(5):1715-1744. [PubMed]
  3. Crowley WF Jr, Filicori M, Spratt DI, Santoro NF. The physiology of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) secretion in men and women. Recent Prog Horm Res. 1985;41:473-531. [PubMed]
  4. Liu PY, Baker HW, Jayadev V, Zacharin M, Conway AJ, Handelsman DJ. Induction of spermatogenesis and fertility during gonadotropin treatment of gonadotropin-deficient infertile men: predictors of fertility outcome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2009;94(3):801-808. [PubMed]
  5. FDA. Factrel (gonadorelin hydrochloride) prescribing information. [PubMed]
Kisspeptin5 references · full page →
  1. Seminara SB, Messager S, Chatzidaki EE, et al. The GPR54 gene as a regulator of puberty. N Engl J Med. 2003;349(17):1614-1627. [PubMed]
  2. de Roux N, Genin E, Carel JC, Matsuda F, Chaussain JL, Milgrom E. Hypogonadotropic hypogonadism due to loss of function of the KiSS1-derived peptide receptor GPR54. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2003;100(19):10972-10976. [PubMed]
  3. Jayasena CN, Abbara A, Comninos AN, et al. Kisspeptin-54 triggers egg maturation in women undergoing in vitro fertilization. J Clin Invest. 2014;124(8):3667-3677. [PubMed]
  4. George JT, Veldhuis JD, Roseweir AK, et al. Kisspeptin-10 is a potent stimulator of LH and increases pulse frequency in men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;96(8):E1228-1236. [PubMed]
  5. Comninos AN, Wall MB, Demetriou L, et al. Kisspeptin modulates sexual and emotional brain processing in humans. J Clin Invest. 2017;127(2):709-719. [PubMed]
Topical Cosmetic Peptides2 references · full page →
  1. Schagen SK. Topical Peptide Treatments with Effective Anti-Aging Results. Cosmetics. 2017;4(2):16. [PubMed]
  2. Wang Y, Wang M, Xiao S, Pan P, Li P, Huo J. The anti-wrinkle efficacy of argireline, a synthetic hexapeptide, in Chinese subjects: a randomized, placebo-controlled study. Am J Clin Dermatol. 2013;14(2):147-53. [PubMed]
Collagen Peptides3 references · full page →
  1. León-López A, et al. Hydrolyzed collagen—sources and applications. Molecules. 2019;24(22):4031. [PubMed]
  2. García-Coronado JM, Martínez-Olvera L, Elizondo-Omaña RE, et al. Effect of collagen supplementation on osteoarthritis symptoms: a meta-analysis of randomized placebo-controlled trials. Int Orthop. 2019;43(3):531-538. [PubMed]
  3. de Miranda RB, Weimer P, Rossi RC. Effects of hydrolyzed collagen supplementation on skin aging: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Dermatol. 2021;60(12):1449-1461. [PubMed]
Metreleptin4 references · full page →
  1. Chou K, Perry CM. Metreleptin: first global approval. Drugs. 2013;73(9):989-997. [PubMed]
  2. Oral EA, et al. Leptin-replacement therapy for lipodystrophy. N Engl J Med. 2002;346(8):570-578. [PubMed]
  3. Heymsfield SB, et al. Recombinant leptin for weight loss in obese and lean adults: a randomized, controlled, dose-escalation trial. JAMA. 1999;282(16):1568-1575. [PubMed]
  4. Welt CK, et al. Recombinant human leptin in women with hypothalamic amenorrhea. N Engl J Med. 2004;351(10):987-997. [PubMed]
Carbetocin4 references · full page →
  1. Hunter DJ, et al. Carbetocin: a synthetic analog of oxytocin. Br J Pharmacol. 1992;105(2):440-444. [PubMed]
  2. Widmer M, et al. Heat-stable carbetocin versus oxytocin to prevent hemorrhage after vaginal birth. N Engl J Med. 2018;379(8):743-752. [PubMed]
  3. Voon HY, et al. Carbetocin versus oxytocin for the prevention of postpartum hemorrhage: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Obstet Gynecol. 2018;131(4):700-710. [PubMed]
  4. Roof E, et al. Intranasal carbetocin reduces hyperphagia, anxiousness, and distress in Prader-Willi syndrome. JCI Insight. 2023;8(7):e168298. [PubMed]
DIHEXA3 references · full page →
  1. Wright JW, Harding JW. The brain renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system: a diversity of functions and implications for CNS diseases. Pflugers Arch. 2013;465(1):133-151. [PubMed]
  2. McCoy AT, et al. Evaluation of metabolically stabilized angiotensin IV analogs as procognitive/antidementia agents. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2013;344(1):141-154. [PubMed]
  3. Benoist CC, et al. The procognitive and synaptogenic effects of angiotensin IV-derived peptides are dependent on activation of the hepatocyte growth factor/c-Met system. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2014;351(2):390-402. [PubMed]
Ziconotide3 references · full page →
  1. Olivera BM, et al. Conotoxins. J Biol Chem. 1991;266(33):22067-22070. [PubMed]
  2. Staats PS, et al. Intrathecal ziconotide in the treatment of refractory pain in patients with cancer or AIDS: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2004;291(1):63-70. [PubMed]
  3. Rauck RL, et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of intrathecal ziconotide in adults with severe chronic pain. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2006;31(5):393-406. [PubMed]
Tesofensine5 references · full page →
  1. Astrup A, et al. Effect of tesofensine on bodyweight loss, body composition, and quality of life in obese patients: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2008;372(9653):1906-1913. [PubMed]
  2. Sjödin A, et al. The effect of the triple monoamine reuptake inhibitor tesofensine on energy metabolism and appetite in overweight and moderately obese men. Int J Obes. 2010;34(11):1634-1643. [PubMed]
  3. Hauner H, et al. Tesofensine for weight loss in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2014;16(8):768-771. [PubMed]
  4. Bentzen BH, et al. Tesofensine, a novel triple monoamine reuptake inhibitor: pharmacology and efficacy in obesity. Curr Drug Targets. 2013;14(4):382-392. [PubMed]
  5. Tesofensine silences GABAergic hypothalamic neurons. bioRxiv preprint. 2023. [PubMed]
Noopept5 references · full page →
  1. Ostrovskaya RU, Gudasheva TA, Voronina TA, Seredenin SB. The original novel nootropic and neuroprotective agent noopept. Eksp Klin Farmakol. 2002;65(5):66-72. [PubMed]
  2. Ostrovskaya RU, Gruden MA, Bobkova NA, et al. The nootropic and neuroprotective proline-containing dipeptide noopept restores spatial memory and increases immunoreactivity to amyloid in an Alzheimer's disease model. J Psychopharmacol. 2007;21(6):611-619. [PubMed]
  3. Neznamov GG, Teleshova ES. Comparative studies of Noopept and piracetam in the treatment of patients with mild cognitive disorders in organic brain diseases of vascular and traumatic origin. Neurosci Behav Physiol. 2009;39(3):311-321. [PubMed]
  4. Gudasheva TA, Boyko SS, Akparov VKh, Ostrovskaya RU, et al. Identification of a novel endogenous memory facilitating cyclic dipeptide cyclo-prolylglycine in rat brain. FEBS Lett. 1996;391(1-2):149-152. [PubMed]
  5. Kovalev GI, Firstova YY, Salimov RM. Effects of piracetam and noopept on the cognitive activity of mice with stress-induced depression-like behavior. Eksp Klin Farmakol. 2007;70(4):3-7. [PubMed]

Long-form Articles

Semaglutide vs Tirzepatide for Weight Loss: A 2026 Comparison6 references · full article →
  1. Frías JP, et al. Tirzepatide versus semaglutide once weekly in patients with type 2 diabetes (SURPASS-2). N Engl J Med. 2021;385(6):503-515. [PubMed]
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Best Peptide Stacks for Fat Loss: A 2026 Evidence-Based Review5 references · full article →
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GLP-1 Microdosing: Real Strategy or Wishful Thinking?2 references · full article →
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GLP-1 Plateau: How to Break Through Weight-Loss Stalls3 references · full article →
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BPC-157 vs TB-500: Which to Choose for Recovery?2 references · full article →
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CagriSema Phase 3: What to Expect and When2 references · full article →
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Retatrutide: Release Date, Expected Magnitude, and What to Watch2 references · full article →
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Ozempic vs Wegovy: The Same Drug Under Different Names2 references · full article →
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Managing GLP-1 Nausea: Practical Strategies That Actually Work3 references · full article →
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  4. Frias JP, et al. CagriSema (cagrilintide + semaglutide) — Phase 2 results. Lancet. 2023. [PubMed]
Bacteriostatic Water for Peptide Reconstitution Explained3 references · full article →
  1. U.S. Pharmacopeia. Monograph: Bacteriostatic Water for Injection (USP). [PubMed]
  2. Gershanik J, et al. The gasping syndrome and benzyl alcohol poisoning. N Engl J Med. 1982;307(22):1384-1388. [PubMed]
  3. Manning MC, et al. Stability of protein pharmaceuticals: an update. Pharm Res. 2010;27(4):544-575. [PubMed]
How to Calculate Peptide Doses: Reconstitution Math, IU Conversions, and Syringe Marks2 references · full article →
  1. Standard insulin syringe specifications and IU/mL conventions — U.S. FDA labeling guidance. [PubMed]
  2. Manning MC, et al. Stability of protein pharmaceuticals: an update. Pharm Res. 2010;27(4):544-575. [PubMed]
The GLP-1 Titration Schedule: Why Slow, and What to Expect at Each Dose Step4 references · full article →
  1. Wilding JPH, et al. Once-weekly semaglutide in adults with overweight or obesity (STEP-1). N Engl J Med. 2021;384:989-1002. [PubMed]
  2. Jastreboff AM, et al. Tirzepatide once weekly for the treatment of obesity (SURMOUNT-1). N Engl J Med. 2022;387(3):205-216. [PubMed]
  3. Wegovy (semaglutide) prescribing information — dosing and administration. U.S. FDA. [PubMed]
  4. Zepbound (tirzepatide) prescribing information — dosing and titration. U.S. FDA. [PubMed]
Saxenda vs Victoza: The Two Faces of Liraglutide4 references · full article →
  1. Pi-Sunyer X, et al. A randomized, controlled trial of 3.0 mg of liraglutide in weight management (SCALE Obesity and Prediabetes). N Engl J Med. 2015;373:11-22. [PubMed]
  2. Marso SP, et al. Liraglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes (LEADER). N Engl J Med. 2016;375:311-322. [PubMed]
  3. Kelly AS, et al. A randomized, controlled trial of liraglutide for adolescents with obesity. N Engl J Med. 2020;382:2117-2128. [PubMed]
  4. Saxenda (liraglutide) Prescribing Information. Novo Nordisk / U.S. FDA. [PubMed]
Best Healing & Recovery Peptides in 2026: An Evidence-Based Ranking4 references · full article →
  1. Sikiric P, et al. Stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157. Curr Pharm Des. 2010;16(10):1224-1234. [PubMed]
  2. Goldstein AL, et al. Thymosin beta-4: actin-sequestering protein with healing properties. [PubMed]
  3. Pickart L, et al. GHK Peptide as a Natural Modulator of Multiple Cellular Pathways in Skin Regeneration. [PubMed]
  4. Goldstein AL, Garaci E. Thymosin alpha 1: chemistry, mechanism of action and clinical applications. [PubMed]
Best Cognitive Peptides in 2026: An Evidence-Based Ranking4 references · full article →
  1. Ziganshina LE, et al. Cerebrolysin for acute ischaemic stroke (Cochrane Review). [PubMed]
  2. Inozemtseva LS, et al. Heptapeptide Semax: cognitive and neuroprotective effects. [PubMed]
  3. Boxer AL, et al. Davunetide in patients with progressive supranuclear palsy: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 2/3 trial. Lancet Neurol. 2014;13:676-685. [PubMed]
  4. Wright JW, Harding JW. The development of small molecule angiotensin IV analogs to treat Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases (Dihexa background). [PubMed]
Best Growth Hormone Secretagogues in 2026: An Evidence-Based Ranking4 references · full article →
  1. Falutz J, et al. Effects of tesamorelin (TH9507), a growth hormone-releasing factor analog, in patients with HIV-associated abdominal fat accumulation. N Engl J Med. 2007;357:2359-2370. [PubMed]
  2. Teichman SL, et al. Prolonged stimulation of growth hormone (GH) and insulin-like growth factor I secretion by CJC-1295. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91:799-805. [PubMed]
  3. Sigalos JT, Pastuszak AW. The Safety and Efficacy of Growth Hormone Secretagogues. Sex Med Rev. 2018;6:45-53. [PubMed]
  4. Nass R, et al. Effects of an oral ghrelin mimetic on body composition and clinical outcomes in healthy older adults: a randomized trial (MK-677). Ann Intern Med. 2008;149:601-611. [PubMed]
How Retatrutide Works in Plain English: The Triple-Agonist Mechanism4 references · full article →
  1. Jastreboff AM, et al. Triple-hormone-receptor agonist retatrutide for obesity (a Phase 2 trial). N Engl J Med. 2023;389(6):514-526. [PubMed]
  2. Coskun T, et al. LY3437943, a novel triple glucagon, GIP, and GLP-1 receptor agonist for glycemic control and weight loss. Cell Metab. 2022;34(9):1234-1247. [PubMed]
  3. Drucker DJ. Mechanisms of action and therapeutic application of glucagon-like peptide-1. Cell Metab. 2018;27(4):740-756. [PubMed]
  4. Jastreboff AM, et al. Tirzepatide once weekly for the treatment of obesity (SURMOUNT-1). N Engl J Med. 2022;387(3):205-216. [PubMed]
Byetta vs Bydureon: The Two Faces of Exenatide4 references · full article →
  1. Buse JB, et al. Effects of exenatide (exendin-4) on glycemic control in type 2 diabetes (initial Byetta trials). [PubMed]
  2. Drucker DJ, et al. Exenatide once weekly versus twice daily for the treatment of type 2 diabetes (DURATION-1). Lancet. 2008;372:1240-1250. [PubMed]
  3. Holman RR, et al. Effects of once-weekly exenatide on cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes (EXSCEL). N Engl J Med. 2017;377:1228-1239. [PubMed]
  4. Byetta (exenatide) Prescribing Information. AstraZeneca / U.S. FDA. [PubMed]
Survodutide: Boehringer's GLP-1 / Glucagon Dual Agonist for Obesity and MASH4 references · full article →
  1. le Roux CW, et al. Survodutide for treatment of obesity: a Phase 2 randomised, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2024. [PubMed]
  2. Sanyal AJ, et al. Survodutide for treatment of MASH: a Phase 2 randomised trial. [PubMed]
  3. Jastreboff AM, et al. Triple-hormone-receptor agonist retatrutide for obesity. N Engl J Med. 2023;389(6):514-526. [PubMed]
  4. Jastreboff AM, et al. Tirzepatide once weekly for the treatment of obesity (SURMOUNT-1). N Engl J Med. 2022;387(3):205-216. [PubMed]
How Dulaglutide (Trulicity) Works in Plain English4 references · full article →
  1. Gerstein HC, et al. Dulaglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes (REWIND). Lancet. 2019;394:121-130. [PubMed]
  2. Glaesner W, et al. Engineering and characterization of the long-acting glucagon-like peptide-1 analogue LY2189265, an Fc fusion protein (dulaglutide). [PubMed]
  3. Knudsen LB, Lau J. The discovery and development of liraglutide and semaglutide. Front Endocrinol. 2019;10:155. [PubMed]
  4. Trulicity (dulaglutide) Prescribing Information. Eli Lilly / U.S. FDA. [PubMed]
Trulicity vs Ozempic: Which Once-Weekly GLP-1 for Type 2 Diabetes?4 references · full article →
  1. Pratley RE, et al. Semaglutide versus dulaglutide once weekly in patients with type 2 diabetes (SUSTAIN-7). Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2018;6:275-286. [PubMed]
  2. Gerstein HC, et al. Dulaglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes (REWIND). Lancet. 2019;394:121-130. [PubMed]
  3. Marso SP, et al. Semaglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes (SUSTAIN-6). N Engl J Med. 2016;375:1834-1844. [PubMed]
  4. Trulicity and Ozempic Prescribing Information. U.S. FDA. [PubMed]
Pemvidutide vs Survodutide vs Retatrutide: The Glucagon-Arm Comparison4 references · full article →
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  2. le Roux CW, et al. Survodutide for treatment of obesity: a Phase 2 randomised, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2024. [PubMed]
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GLP-1 Medications and Surgery: Pre-Op Discontinuation Guidelines3 references · full article →
  1. American Society of Anesthesiologists. Consensus-based guidance on preoperative management of patients on GLP-1 receptor agonists. June 2023. [PubMed]
  2. Multi-society joint statement on perioperative management of GLP-1 receptor agonists. ASA, ASMBS, ASGE, AGA, IARS. October 2024. [PubMed]
  3. Klein SR, et al. Retained gastric content in patients on GLP-1 receptor agonists undergoing elective procedures. Anesthesiology. 2023. [PubMed]
Peptide Cycling: When and Why People Take Breaks (and When It Matters)3 references · full article →
  1. Sigalos JT, Pastuszak AW. The Safety and Efficacy of Growth Hormone Secretagogues. Sex Med Rev. 2018;6:45-53. [PubMed]
  2. Camanni F, et al. Growth hormone-releasing peptides and their analogs: receptor desensitization. [PubMed]
  3. Wilding JPH, et al. Weight regain and cardiometabolic effects after withdrawal of semaglutide (STEP-1 extension). [PubMed]
Subcutaneous vs Intramuscular Peptide Injection: When Each Is Used2 references · full article →
  1. Strauss K, et al. Optimizing injection technique in patients receiving subcutaneous injections. [PubMed]
  2. Frid AH, et al. New insulin delivery recommendations (FITTER guidelines on SubQ injection). [PubMed]
Pemvidutide: Altimmune's MASH-Focused GLP-1 / Glucagon Dual3 references · full article →
  1. Altimmune Inc. MOMENTUM Phase 2 trial of pemvidutide in adults with obesity. 2024. [PubMed]
  2. Harrison SA, et al. Resmetirom for the treatment of MASH (MAESTRO-NASH). N Engl J Med. 2024;390:497-509. [PubMed]
  3. le Roux CW, et al. Survodutide for treatment of obesity: a Phase 2 randomised, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2024. [PubMed]
Mazdutide: Innovent's GLP-1 / Glucagon Dual Agonist for the Asian Market3 references · full article →
  1. Ji L, et al. Mazdutide for obesity and weight management: Phase 3 Chinese trial results (GLORY-1). 2024. [PubMed]
  2. Innovent Biologics. Mazdutide regulatory approval news, NMPA 2024. [PubMed]
  3. Coskun T, et al. LY3437943 (retatrutide) discovery and characterization. Cell Metab. 2022 (mazdutide's structural cousin). [PubMed]
Setmelanotide and the MC4R Pathway: Rare Genetic Obesity Syndromes3 references · full article →
  1. Clement K, et al. Efficacy and safety of setmelanotide, an MC4R agonist, in individuals with severe obesity due to LEPR or POMC deficiency. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2020;8:960-970. [PubMed]
  2. Haqq AM, et al. Efficacy and safety of setmelanotide in patients with Bardet-Biedl syndrome. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2022;10:859-868. [PubMed]
  3. Imcivree (setmelanotide) Prescribing Information. Rhythm Pharmaceuticals / U.S. FDA. [PubMed]
How HGH Replacement Actually Works in Plain English4 references · full article →
  1. Molitch ME, et al. Evaluation and treatment of adult growth hormone deficiency: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;96(6):1587-1609. [PubMed]
  2. Rudman D, et al. Effects of human growth hormone in men over 60 years old. N Engl J Med. 1990;323(1):1-6. [PubMed]
  3. U.S. Code Title 21 § 333(e). Distribution of human growth hormone (criminal penalties for off-label use). [PubMed]
  4. Ho KK, GH Deficiency Consensus Workshop Participants. Consensus guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of adults with GH deficiency II. Eur J Endocrinol. 2007;157(6):695-700. [PubMed]
Tesamorelin vs GHRPs vs HGH: Three Routes to GH Optimization4 references · full article →
  1. Falutz J, et al. Effects of tesamorelin (TH9507), a growth hormone-releasing factor analog, in patients with HIV-associated abdominal fat accumulation. N Engl J Med. 2007;357:2359-2370. [PubMed]
  2. Teichman SL, et al. Prolonged stimulation of growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor I secretion by CJC-1295. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91:799-805. [PubMed]
  3. Molitch ME, et al. Evaluation and treatment of adult growth hormone deficiency: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;96(6):1587-1609. [PubMed]
  4. Sigalos JT, Pastuszak AW. The safety and efficacy of growth hormone secretagogues. Sex Med Rev. 2018;6:45-53. [PubMed]
GH Optimization for Longevity: GHRPs, Tesamorelin, and Low-Dose HGH5 references · full article →
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  2. Bartke A. Growth hormone and aging: updated review. World J Mens Health. 2019;37(1):19-30. [PubMed]
  3. Friedman SD, et al. Growth hormone and IGF-1: relationship to longevity and disease. Endocr Rev. 2009;30(2):152-177. [PubMed]
  4. Sigalos JT, Pastuszak AW. The safety and efficacy of growth hormone secretagogues. Sex Med Rev. 2018;6:45-53. [PubMed]
  5. Molitch ME, et al. Evaluation and treatment of adult growth hormone deficiency: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;96(6):1587-1609. [PubMed]
NAD+, NMN, NR, and IV NAD: What the Research Actually Shows8 references · full article →
  1. Rajman L, et al. Therapeutic potential of NAD-boosting molecules: the in vivo evidence. Cell Metab. 2018;27(3):529-547. [PubMed]
  2. Martens CR, et al. Chronic nicotinamide riboside supplementation is well-tolerated and elevates NAD+ in healthy middle-aged and older adults. Nat Commun. 2018;9:1286. [PubMed]
  3. Yoshino M, et al. Nicotinamide mononucleotide increases muscle insulin sensitivity in prediabetic women. Science. 2021;372(6547):1224-1229. [PubMed]
  4. Liao B, et al. Nicotinamide mononucleotide supplementation enhances aerobic capacity in amateur runners: a randomized, double-blind study. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2021;18(1):54. [PubMed]
  5. Yoshino J, et al. NAD+ intermediates: the biology and therapeutic potential of NMN and NR. Cell Metab. 2018;27(3):513-528. [PubMed]
  6. Conze D, et al. Safety and metabolism of long-term administration of NIAGEN (nicotinamide riboside chloride). Sci Rep. 2019;9:9772. [PubMed]
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  8. Igarashi M, et al. Chronic nicotinamide mononucleotide supplementation elevates blood nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide levels and altered biological functions in healthy subjects: an open-label single-arm study. NPJ Aging. 2022;8(1):5. [PubMed]
MOTS-c + SS-31: Better Together or Separate?6 references · full article →
  1. Lee C, et al. The mitochondrial-derived peptide MOTS-c promotes metabolic homeostasis. Cell Metab. 2015;21(3):443-454. [PubMed]
  2. Reynolds JC, et al. MOTS-c is an exercise-induced mitochondrial-encoded regulator of age-dependent physical decline and muscle homeostasis. Nat Commun. 2021;12(1):470. [PubMed]
  3. Szeto HH. Mitochondria-targeted cytoprotective peptides for ischemia-reperfusion injury. Antioxid Redox Signal. 2008;10(3):601-619. [PubMed]
  4. Karaa A, et al. Randomized dose-escalation trial of elamipretide in adults with primary mitochondrial myopathy. Neurology. 2018;90(14):e1212-e1221. [PubMed]
  5. Daubert MA, et al. Novel mitochondria-targeting peptide in heart failure treatment: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial of elamipretide. Circ Heart Fail. 2017;10(12):e004389. [PubMed]
  6. Kim KH, et al. The mitochondrial-encoded peptide MOTS-c translocates to the nucleus to regulate nuclear gene expression in response to metabolic stress. Cell Metab. 2018;28(3):516-524. [PubMed]
Tesofensine vs Semaglutide for Weight Loss: A Mechanism-First Comparison5 references · full article →
  1. Astrup A, et al. Effect of tesofensine on bodyweight loss, body composition, and quality of life in obese patients. Lancet. 2008;372(9653):1906-1913. [PubMed]
  2. Wilding JPH, et al. Once-Weekly Semaglutide in Adults with Overweight or Obesity (STEP-1). N Engl J Med. 2021;384:989-1002. [PubMed]
  3. Lincoff AM, et al. Semaglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Obesity without Diabetes (SELECT). N Engl J Med. 2023;389:2221-2232. [PubMed]
  4. Jastreboff AM, et al. Tirzepatide Once Weekly for the Treatment of Obesity (SURMOUNT-1). N Engl J Med. 2022;387:205-216. [PubMed]
  5. Sjödin A, et al. The effect of the triple monoamine reuptake inhibitor tesofensine on energy metabolism and appetite. Int J Obes. 2010;34(11):1634-1643. [PubMed]
CagriSema Explained: How the Amylin + GLP-1 Combination Works6 references · full article →
  1. REIMAGINE 1 Phase 3 trial — Cagrilintide and semaglutide co-administered for weight management in adults with obesity. Lancet. 2026. [PubMed]
  2. Enebo LB, et al. Safety, tolerability, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics of concomitant administration of multiple doses of cagrilintide with semaglutide 2·4 mg for weight management (Phase 1b). Lancet. 2021;397(10286):1736-1748. [PubMed]
  3. Frias JP, et al. Cagrilintide co-administered with semaglutide in adults with overweight or obesity (Phase 2 program data). Diabetes Obes Metab. 2023. [PubMed]
  4. Wilding JPH, et al. Once-Weekly Semaglutide in Adults with Overweight or Obesity (STEP-1). N Engl J Med. 2021;384(11):989-1002. [PubMed]
  5. Lincoff AM, et al. Semaglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Obesity without Diabetes (SELECT). N Engl J Med. 2023;389(24):2221-2232. [PubMed]
  6. Jastreboff AM, et al. Triple-Hormone-Receptor Agonist Retatrutide for Obesity — A Phase 2 Trial. N Engl J Med. 2023;389(6):514-526. [PubMed]
GHK-Cu vs AHK-Cu: Should You Add AHK-Cu to Your Stack?6 references · full article →
  1. Pickart L, Margolina A. Regenerative and Protective Actions of the GHK-Cu Peptide in the Light of the New Gene Data. Int J Mol Sci. 2018;19(7):1987. [PubMed]
  2. Pyo HK, Yoo HG, Won CH, et al. The effect of tripeptide-copper complex on human hair growth in vitro (foundational AHK-Cu hair-follicle paper). Arch Pharm Res. 2007;30(7):834-839. [PubMed]
  3. Pickart L. The human tri-peptide GHK and tissue remodeling. J Biomater Sci Polym Ed. 2008;19(8):969-988. [PubMed]
  4. Choi SJ, Cho YE, et al. Effect of synthetic AHK tripeptide on hair growth and dermal papilla proliferation. J Cosmet Dermatol. 2014. [PubMed]
  5. Trüeb RM. Oxidative stress and its impact on skin and hair. Adv Pharm Bull. 2015;5(Suppl 1):759-765. [PubMed]
  6. Gupta AK, Teasell EM, Economopoulos V, Mirmirani P. GLP-1 therapies and hair loss: systematic review of current evidence. J R Soc Med. 2026. [PubMed]
Are Peptides Safe? A Calibrated Guide to Risk by Category6 references · full article →
  1. FDA. Compounded GLP-1 Drug Products: Information for Patients and Health Professionals. 2025. [PubMed]
  2. Joshi GP, Abdelmalak BB, Weigel WA, et al. American Society of Anesthesiologists Consensus-Based Guidance on Preoperative Management of Patients on Glucagon-like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonists. 2023; updated 2024. [PubMed]
  3. Marso SP, Daniels GH, Brown-Frandsen K, et al. Liraglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Type 2 Diabetes (LEADER). N Engl J Med. 2016;375:311-322. [PubMed]
  4. Lincoff AM, Brown-Frandsen K, Colhoun HM, et al. Semaglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Obesity without Diabetes (SELECT). N Engl J Med. 2023;389:2221-2232. [PubMed]
  5. Renehan AG, Zwahlen M, Minder C, et al. Insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-I, IGF binding protein-3, and cancer risk: systematic review and meta-regression analysis. Lancet. 2004;363(9418):1346-1353. [PubMed]
  6. United States Pharmacopeia. USP standards for compounded preparations. [PubMed]
8 Peptides That Need Extra Caution (And Why)8 references · full article →
  1. Cardones AR, Grichnik JM. alpha-Melanocyte-stimulating hormone-induced eruptive nevi. Arch Dermatol. 2009;145(4):441-444. [PubMed]
  2. Sikiric P, Seiwerth S, Rucman R, et al. Stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 and wound healing. Front Pharmacol. 2021;12:627533. [PubMed]
  3. Nass R, Pezzoli SS, Oliveri MC, et al. Effects of an oral ghrelin mimetic on body composition and clinical outcomes in healthy older adults: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 2008;149(9):601-611. [PubMed]
  4. Baar MP, Brandt RMC, Putavet DA, et al. Targeted Apoptosis of Senescent Cells Restores Tissue Homeostasis in Response to Chemotoxicity and Aging (FOXO4-DRI). Cell. 2017;169(1):132-147. [PubMed]
  5. Ziganshina LE, Abakumova T. Cerebrolysin for acute ischaemic stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;4(4):CD007026. [PubMed]
  6. Astrup A, Madsbad S, Breum L, et al. Effect of tesofensine on bodyweight loss, body composition, and quality of life in obese patients: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2008;372(9653):1906-1913. [PubMed]
  7. Kraus D, Yang Q, Kong D, et al. Nicotinamide N-methyltransferase knockdown protects against diet-induced obesity. Nature. 2014;508(7495):258-262. [PubMed]
  8. Pope JE, Deer TR. Ziconotide: a clinical update and pharmacologic review. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2013;14(7):957-966. [PubMed]
Peptide Drug Interactions: A Practical Guide8 references · full article →
  1. Joshi GP, Abdelmalak BB, Weigel WA, et al. American Society of Anesthesiologists Consensus-Based Guidance on Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists. 2023; updated 2024. [PubMed]
  2. Marso SP, Daniels GH, Brown-Frandsen K, et al. Liraglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Type 2 Diabetes (LEADER trial). N Engl J Med. 2016;375(4):311-322. [PubMed]
  3. Hulst AH, Polderman JAW, Ouweneel E, et al. Peri-operative continuation of metformin does not improve glycaemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes: a randomized controlled trial. Anaesthesia. 2018;73(9):1093-1100. [PubMed]
  4. Renehan AG, Zwahlen M, Minder C, et al. Insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-I, IGF binding protein-3, and cancer risk: systematic review and meta-regression analysis. Lancet. 2004;363(9418):1346-1353. [PubMed]
  5. FDA. Drug Safety Communication: Updated recommendations for use of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists with insulin. 2018. [PubMed]
  6. American Diabetes Association. Pharmacologic Approaches to Glycemic Treatment: Standards of Care in Diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2024. [PubMed]
  7. Sodhi M, Rezaeianzadeh R, Kezouh A, Etminan M. Risk of Gastrointestinal Adverse Events Associated With Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonists for Weight Loss. JAMA. 2023;330(18):1795-1797. [PubMed]
  8. FDA Pregnancy Categories and current Pregnancy and Lactation Labeling Rule. [PubMed]
State of the Peptide Market 2026: Enforcement, Fallout, and What Comes Next6 references · full article →
  1. FDA. Compounded Drug Products and the FDA Petitions and Categorization for Compounding Activities Committee (PCAC). 2025-2026. [PubMed]
  2. FDA. Bulk Drug Substances Used in Compounding Under Section 503A of the FD&C Act. Federal Register notices, 2023-2026. [PubMed]
  3. Department of Justice. Press releases related to peptide and research-chemical enforcement actions, 2024-2026. [PubMed]
  4. FDA Drug Safety Communications related to compounded peptide products, 2023-2026. [PubMed]
  5. American Pharmacists Association. Compounding standards and 503A/503B pharmacy oversight framework. [PubMed]
  6. United States Pharmacopeia. Standards for compounded preparations. [PubMed]
What Are Exosomes — and Why Most of What's Sold Isn't What You Think10 references · full article →
  1. MSC-derived exosomes for skin aging, scars, and hyperpigmentation: a 2025 systematic review of human clinical outcomes. [PubMed]
  2. Intra-articular MSC exosome injection in rat osteoarthritis models: a 2025 systematic review and meta-analysis. Consistent histological improvements across validated scoring systems. [PubMed]
  3. Umbilical cord MSC-derived exosomes in knee osteoarthritis: human study results reviewed 2025. [PubMed]
  4. Prospective hair-density trial of intradermal exosome injections: 2024 publication reporting density increases from ~96 to ~163 hairs/cm² without significant adverse events. Aesthetic Plast Surg. 2024. [PubMed]
  5. Human umbilical cord MSC-derived exosomes for androgenetic alopecia via Wnt/β-catenin pathway. Stem Cell Res Ther. 2025. [PubMed]
  6. Plant-derived (ginger) exosome-like nanoparticle anti-inflammatory activity: IL-6 suppression and macrophage modulation. Front Nutr. 2025. [PubMed]
  7. International consensus on clinical-grade extracellular vesicle manufacturing requirements (2025). GMP, characterization, and quality control standards for therapeutic EV products. [PubMed]
  8. FDA Public Safety Notification on Exosome Products. FDA Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research. [PubMed]
  9. FDA Patient and Consumer Warning About Potential Serious Risks of Harm Following Use of Unapproved Products. Updated March 2026. [PubMed]
  10. FDA Public Safety Alert Due to Marketing of Unapproved Stem Cell and Exosome Products. Warning letters and enforcement actions against Chara Biologics, Evolutionary Biologics, and additional companies (2024-2025). [PubMed]

Theoretical Stacks

BPC-157 + TB-5003 references · full stack →
  1. Sikiric P, et al. Stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 — multi-target therapeutic. Curr Pharm Des. 2010;16(10):1224-1234. [PubMed]
  2. Goldstein AL, et al. Thymosin beta4: a new molecular target for tissue regeneration. Expert Opin Biol Ther. 2012;12(1):37-51. [PubMed]
  3. Crockford D. Development of thymosin beta 4 for treatment of patients with ischemic heart disease. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2007;1112:385-95. [PubMed]
CJC-1295 + Ipamorelin3 references · full stack →
  1. Teichman SL, et al. Prolonged stimulation of GH and IGF-I secretion by CJC-1295. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91(3):799-805. [PubMed]
  2. Raun K, et al. Ipamorelin, the first selective GH secretagogue. Eur J Endocrinol. 1998;139(5):552-561. [PubMed]
  3. Ionescu M, Frohman LA. Pulsatile secretion of growth hormone in response to CJC-1295. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91(12):4792-4797. [PubMed]
GLP-1 + GH peptides3 references · full stack →
  1. Wilding JPH, et al. Once-Weekly Semaglutide in Adults with Overweight or Obesity (STEP 1). N Engl J Med. 2021;384:989-1002. [PubMed]
  2. Heymsfield SB, et al. Effect of Bimagrumab vs Placebo on Body Fat Mass Among Adults With Type 2 Diabetes and Obesity. JAMA Netw Open. 2021;4(1):e2033457. [PubMed]
  3. Helms ER, et al. A systematic review of dietary protein during caloric restriction in resistance trained lean athletes. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2014;24(2):127-138. [PubMed]
Retatrutide + MOTS-c + Tesamorelin3 references · full stack →
  1. Jastreboff AM, et al. Triple-Hormone-Receptor Agonist Retatrutide for Obesity — A Phase 2 Trial. N Engl J Med. 2023;389(6):514-526. [PubMed]
  2. Falutz J, et al. Effects of tesamorelin on visceral adipose tissue. Diabetes Care. 2010;33(9):1903-1910. [PubMed]
  3. Lee C, et al. The mitochondrial-derived peptide MOTS-c promotes metabolic homeostasis. Cell Metab. 2015;21(3):443-454. [PubMed]
MOTS-c + Epitalon + SS-313 references · full stack →
  1. Lee C, et al. The mitochondrial-derived peptide MOTS-c promotes metabolic homeostasis. Cell Metab. 2015;21(3):443-454. [PubMed]
  2. Khavinson VK. Peptides and ageing. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2002;23 Suppl 3:11-144. [PubMed]
  3. Szeto HH. Mitochondria-targeted cytoprotective peptides for ischemia-reperfusion injury. Antioxid Redox Signal. 2008;10(3):601-619. [PubMed]
Semax + Selank2 references · full stack →
  1. Eremin KO, et al. Semax: an analog of ACTH(4-10) — neuroprotective effects in cerebral ischemia. Bull Exp Biol Med. 2005;139(4):444-447. [PubMed]
  2. Kozlovskaya MM, et al. Selank and short peptides of the tuftsin family in the regulation of adaptive behavior in stress. Neurosci Behav Physiol. 2003;33(9):927-933. [PubMed]
BPC-157 + TB-500 + Thymosin α-1 + GHK-Cu3 references · full stack →
  1. Sikiric P, et al. Stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157. Curr Pharm Des. 2010;16(10):1224-1234. [PubMed]
  2. Tuthill CW, et al. Thymosin alpha-1 — recent advances in clinical applications. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2010;1194:130-135. [PubMed]
  3. Pickart L, Margolina A. Regenerative and protective actions of the GHK-Cu peptide. Int J Mol Sci. 2018;19(7):1987. [PubMed]
Semaglutide alone — the Cardiometabolic Foundation3 references · full stack →
  1. Lincoff AM, et al. Semaglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Obesity without Diabetes (SELECT). N Engl J Med. 2023;389(24):2221-2232. [PubMed]
  2. Perkovic V, et al. Effects of Semaglutide on Chronic Kidney Disease in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes (FLOW). N Engl J Med. 2024;391(2):109-121. [PubMed]
  3. Wilding JPH, et al. Once-Weekly Semaglutide in Adults with Overweight or Obesity (STEP 1). N Engl J Med. 2021;384:989-1002. [PubMed]
DSIP + Selank2 references · full stack →
  1. Schoenenberger GA. Characterization, properties and multivariate functions of delta-sleep-inducing peptide. Eur Neurol. 1984;23(5):321-345. [PubMed]
  2. Kozlovskaya MM, et al. Selank and short peptides of the tuftsin family. Neurosci Behav Physiol. 2003;33(9):927-933. [PubMed]
PT-141 + Oxytocin3 references · full stack →
  1. Kingsberg SA, et al. Bremelanotide for the Treatment of Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder (RECONNECT). Obstet Gynecol. 2019;134(5):899-908. [PubMed]
  2. Carter CS. The oxytocin–vasopressin pathway in the context of love and fear. Front Endocrinol. 2017;8:356. [PubMed]
  3. Leng G, Ludwig M. Intranasal oxytocin: myths and delusions. Biol Psychiatry. 2016;79(3):243-250. [PubMed]
Retatrutide + Tirzepatide2 references · full stack →
  1. Jastreboff AM, et al. Triple-Hormone-Receptor Agonist Retatrutide for Obesity — A Phase 2 Trial. N Engl J Med. 2023;389(6):514-526. [PubMed]
  2. Jastreboff AM, et al. Tirzepatide Once Weekly for the Treatment of Obesity (SURMOUNT-1). N Engl J Med. 2022;387(3):205-216. [PubMed]
Gut Healing & Mucosal Barrier Stack4 references · full stack →
  1. Sikiric P, et al. Brain–gut axis and pentadecapeptide BPC 157. World J Gastroenterol. 2018;24(9):1019-1029. [PubMed]
  2. Leone S, et al. KPV (α-MSH 11-13) and inflammatory bowel disease. Front Pharmacol. 2018;9:1218. [PubMed]
  3. Leffler DA, et al. Larazotide acetate for persistent symptoms of celiac disease despite a gluten-free diet (CeD-PRO). Gastroenterology. 2015;148(7):1311-1319. [PubMed]
  4. Tomita M, et al. Bovine lactoferrin and lactoferricin: clinical applications. Biochimie. 2009;91(1):52-57. [PubMed]
Cellular Senescence & Anti-Aging Stack4 references · full stack →
  1. Baar MP, et al. Targeted apoptosis of senescent cells restores tissue homeostasis. Cell. 2017;169(1):132-147. [PubMed]
  2. Neelakantan H, et al. Selective and membrane-permeable small molecule inhibitors of NNMT. Sci Rep. 2017;7(1):1660. [PubMed]
  3. Hipkiss AR. Carnosine and its possible roles in nutrition and health. Adv Food Nutr Res. 2009;57:87-154. [PubMed]
  4. Pizzorno J. Glutathione! Integr Med (Encinitas). 2014;13(1):8-12. [PubMed]
Immune Resilience Stack4 references · full stack →
  1. Romani L, et al. Thymosin alpha1: an endogenous regulator of inflammation, immunity, and tolerance. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2007;1112:326-338. [PubMed]
  2. Wakabayashi H, et al. Lactoferrin for prevention of common viral infections. J Infect Chemother. 2014;20(11):666-671. [PubMed]
  3. Vandamme D, et al. A comprehensive summary of LL-37, the factotum human cathelicidin peptide. Cell Immunol. 2012;280(1):22-35. [PubMed]
  4. Brines M, et al. ARA 290, a nonerythropoietic peptide engineered from erythropoietin, improves metabolic control and neuropathic symptoms. Mol Med. 2014;20(1):658-666. [PubMed]
Cognitive Aging & Neuroprotection Stack3 references · full stack →
  1. Heiss WD, et al. Cerebrolysin in patients with acute ischemic stroke in Asia: results of a double-blind, placebo-controlled randomized trial (CASTA). Stroke. 2012;43(3):630-636. [PubMed]
  2. Khavinson VK, Linkova NS. Peptide bioregulators: a new class of geroprotectors. Adv Gerontol. 2020;10:34-45. [PubMed]
  3. McCoy AT, et al. Evaluation of metabolically stabilized angiotensin IV analogs as procognitive/antidementia agents. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2013;344(1):141-154. [PubMed]
Khavinson Bioregulator Foundational Protocol3 references · full stack →
  1. Khavinson VK. Peptides and ageing. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2002;23 Suppl 3:11-144. [PubMed]
  2. Khavinson VK, Linkova NS. Peptide bioregulators: a new class of geroprotectors. Adv Gerontol. 2020;10:34-45. [PubMed]
  3. Khavinson VK, et al. Effects of pineal peptide preparation Epitalamin on free-radical processes in humans and animals. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2003;24(5):339-340. [PubMed]
GLP-1 + Amylin Combination Therapy4 references · full stack →
  1. Lau DCW, et al. Once-weekly cagrilintide for weight management in people with overweight and obesity: a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2021;398(10317):2160-2172. [PubMed]
  2. Jastreboff AM, et al. Tirzepatide once weekly for the treatment of obesity (SURMOUNT-1). N Engl J Med. 2022;387(3):205-216. [PubMed]
  3. Aronne LJ, et al. Pramlintide as an adjunct to lifestyle intervention in the management of obesity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007;92(8):2977-2983. [PubMed]
  4. Frias JP, et al. Efficacy and safety of co-administered once-weekly cagrilintide 2.4 mg with once-weekly semaglutide 2.4 mg in T2D. Lancet. 2023;402(10403):720-730. [PubMed]
Skin & Topical Anti-Aging Stack3 references · full stack →
  1. Pickart L, Vasquez-Soltero JM, Margolina A. GHK peptide as a natural modulator of multiple cellular pathways in skin regeneration. Biomed Res Int. 2015;2015:648108. [PubMed]
  2. Lupo MP, Cole AL. Cosmeceutical peptides. Dermatol Ther. 2007;20(5):343-349. [PubMed]
  3. Choi FD, et al. Oral collagen supplementation: a systematic review of dermatological applications. J Drugs Dermatol. 2019;18(1):9-16. [PubMed]
Vascular Health & Endothelial Function Stack3 references · full stack →
  1. Brines M, et al. ARA 290, a nonerythropoietic peptide engineered from erythropoietin, improves metabolic control and neuropathic symptoms in patients with type 2 diabetes. Mol Med. 2014;20:658-666. [PubMed]
  2. Khavinson VK, Linkova NS. Peptide bioregulators: a new class of geroprotectors. Adv Gerontol. 2020;10:34-45. [PubMed]
  3. Heitzer T, et al. Endothelial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and risk of cardiovascular events in patients with coronary artery disease. Circulation. 2001;104(22):2673-2678. [PubMed]
Hypertrophy & Anabolic Performance Stack4 references · full stack →
  1. Goldspink G. Mechanical signals, IGF-I gene splicing, and muscle adaptation. Physiology (Bethesda). 2005;20:232-238. [PubMed]
  2. Lee SJ. Targeting the myostatin signaling pathway to treat muscle loss and metabolic dysfunction. J Clin Invest. 2021;131(9):e148372. [PubMed]
  3. Imboden MT, et al. Insulin-like growth factor-1 and risk of all-cause and cancer-specific mortality. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2022;107(5):e1973-e1985. [PubMed]
  4. Locatelli V, Bianchi VE. Effect of GH/IGF-1 on bone metabolism and osteoporosis. Int J Endocrinol. 2014;2014:235060. [PubMed]
Visceral Adipose-Targeted Stack3 references · full stack →
  1. Falutz J, et al. Long-term safety and effects of tesamorelin, a growth hormone-releasing factor analogue, in HIV patients with abdominal fat accumulation. AIDS. 2008;22(14):1719-1728. [PubMed]
  2. Jastreboff AM, et al. Tirzepatide once weekly for the treatment of obesity (SURMOUNT-1). N Engl J Med. 2022;387(3):205-216. [PubMed]
  3. Stanley TL, et al. Tesamorelin reduces hepatic fat in HIV-infected patients with NAFLD. Hepatology. 2019;69(3):1099-1110. [PubMed]
Targeted Obesity Pathway Stack3 references · full stack →
  1. Clément K, et al. Efficacy and safety of setmelanotide, an MC4R agonist, in individuals with severe obesity due to LEPR or POMC deficiency. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2020;8(12):960-970. [PubMed]
  2. Wilding JPH, et al. Once-weekly semaglutide in adults with overweight or obesity (STEP-1). N Engl J Med. 2021;384(11):989-1002. [PubMed]
  3. Haqq AM, et al. Efficacy and safety of setmelanotide in Bardet-Biedl syndrome. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2022;10(12):859-868. [PubMed]
Connective Tissue & Tendon Repair Stack3 references · full stack →
  1. Chang HK, et al. Pentadecapeptide BPC 157 enhances the growth hormone receptor expression in tendon fibroblasts. Molecules. 2014;19(11):19066-19077. [PubMed]
  2. Goldstein AL, Hannappel E, Sosne G, Kleinman HK. Thymosin β4: a multi-functional regenerative peptide. Expert Opin Biol Ther. 2012;12(1):37-51. [PubMed]
  3. Shaw G, et al. Vitamin C-enriched gelatin supplementation before intermittent activity augments collagen synthesis. Am J Clin Nutr. 2017;105(1):136-143. [PubMed]
Post-Concussion & TBI Recovery Stack3 references · full stack →
  1. Heiss WD, et al. Cerebrolysin in patients with acute ischemic stroke in Asia (CASTA). Stroke. 2012;43(3):630-636. [PubMed]
  2. Muresanu DF, et al. Cerebrolysin and recovery after stroke (CARS): a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind, multicenter trial. Stroke. 2016;47(1):151-159. [PubMed]
  3. Brines M, Cerami A. Erythropoietin-mediated tissue protection: reducing collateral damage from the primary injury response. J Intern Med. 2008;264(5):405-432. [PubMed]
Sarcopenia & Healthy-Aging Anabolic Stack3 references · full stack →
  1. Sigalos JT, Pastuszak AW. The safety and efficacy of growth hormone secretagogues. Sex Med Rev. 2018;6(1):45-53. [PubMed]
  2. Falutz J, et al. Long-term safety and effects of tesamorelin in HIV patients. AIDS. 2008;22(14):1719-1728. [PubMed]
  3. Kim HJ, et al. Effects of carnosine in older adults with mild cognitive impairment. Geriatr Gerontol Int. 2014;14(2):420-426. [PubMed]
Bone & Joint Longevity Stack3 references · full stack →
  1. Neer RM, et al. Effect of parathyroid hormone (1-34) on fractures and bone mineral density in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. N Engl J Med. 2001;344(19):1434-1441. [PubMed]
  2. Pickart L, Margolina A. Regenerative and protective actions of the GHK-Cu peptide. Int J Mol Sci. 2018;19(7):1987. [PubMed]
  3. Khavinson VK, Linkova NS. Peptide bioregulators: a new class of geroprotectors. Adv Gerontol. 2020;10:34-45. [PubMed]
Metabolic Healthspan Stack4 references · full stack →
  1. Lincoff AM, et al. Semaglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in obesity without diabetes (SELECT). N Engl J Med. 2023;389(24):2221-2232. [PubMed]
  2. Perkovic V, et al. Effects of semaglutide on chronic kidney disease in patients with type 2 diabetes (FLOW). N Engl J Med. 2024;391(2):109-121. [PubMed]
  3. Hipkiss AR. Carnosine and its possible roles in nutrition and health. Adv Food Nutr Res. 2009;57:87-154. [PubMed]
  4. Neelakantan H, et al. Selective and membrane-permeable small molecule inhibitors of NNMT. Sci Rep. 2017;7(1):1660. [PubMed]
Female Sexual Wellness Stack3 references · full stack →
  1. Kingsberg SA, et al. Bremelanotide for the treatment of hypoactive sexual desire disorder: two randomized phase 3 trials (RECONNECT). Obstet Gynecol. 2019;134(5):899-908. [PubMed]
  2. Magon N, Kalra S. The orgasmic history of oxytocin: love, lust, and labor. Indian J Endocrinol Metab. 2011;15 Suppl 3:S156-S161. [PubMed]
  3. Medvedev VE, et al. Selank: anxiolytic effects of an analog of tuftsin in clinical practice. Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova. 2014;114(7):17-22. [PubMed]
Male Sexual Performance & Vitality Stack3 references · full stack →
  1. Diamond LE, et al. An effect on the subjective sexual response in premenopausal women with sexual arousal disorder by bremelanotide (PT-141). J Sex Med. 2006;3(4):628-638. [PubMed]
  2. Falutz J, et al. Long-term safety and effects of tesamorelin in HIV patients. AIDS. 2008;22(14):1719-1728. [PubMed]
  3. Wittert G. The relationship between sleep disorders and testosterone. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes. 2014;21(3):239-243. [PubMed]
NASH / Fatty Liver Targeted Stack3 references · full stack →
  1. Loomba R, et al. Tirzepatide for metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis with liver fibrosis (SYNERGY-NASH). N Engl J Med. 2024;391(4):299-310. [PubMed]
  2. Stanley TL, et al. Effects of tesamorelin on non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in HIV: a randomised, double-blind, multicentre trial. Lancet HIV. 2019;6(12):e821-e830. [PubMed]
  3. Hipkiss AR. Carnosine and its possible roles in nutrition and health. Adv Food Nutr Res. 2009;57:87-154. [PubMed]
NAD+ Precursor + Epitalon5 references · full stack →
  1. Rajman L, et al. Therapeutic potential of NAD-boosting molecules: the in vivo evidence. Cell Metab. 2018;27(3):529-547. [PubMed]
  2. Khavinson VK, et al. Peptide regulation of aging: 35-year research experience. Bull Exp Biol Med. 2014;156(6):824-8. [PubMed]
  3. Anisimov VN, et al. Effect of Epitalon on biomarkers of aging. Exp Gerontol. 2003;38(4):449-461. [PubMed]
  4. Martens CR, et al. Chronic nicotinamide riboside supplementation is well-tolerated and elevates NAD+ in healthy middle-aged and older adults. Nat Commun. 2018;9:1286. [PubMed]
  5. Imai SI, Guarente L. NAD+ and sirtuins in aging and disease. Trends Cell Biol. 2014;24(8):464-471. [PubMed]
The Glow Stack4 references · full stack →
  1. Pickart L, Margolina A. Regenerative and protective actions of the GHK-Cu peptide in the light of the new gene data. Int J Mol Sci. 2018;19(7):1987. [PubMed]
  2. Sikiric P, et al. Stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157: novel therapy in gastrointestinal tract. Curr Pharm Des. 2011;17(16):1612-32. [PubMed]
  3. Choi FD, et al. Oral collagen supplementation: a systematic review of dermatological applications. J Drugs Dermatol. 2019;18(1):9-16. [PubMed]
  4. Pickart L. The human tri-peptide GHK and tissue remodeling. J Biomater Sci Polym Ed. 2008;19(8):969-988. [PubMed]
Tesofensine + GLP-13 references · full stack →
  1. Astrup A, et al. Effect of tesofensine on bodyweight loss, body composition, and quality of life in obese patients. Lancet. 2008;372(9653):1906-1913. [PubMed]
  2. Wilding JPH, et al. Once-Weekly Semaglutide in Adults with Overweight or Obesity (STEP-1). N Engl J Med. 2021;384:989-1002. [PubMed]
  3. Lincoff AM, et al. Semaglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Obesity without Diabetes (SELECT). N Engl J Med. 2023;389:2221-2232. [PubMed]
Tesofensine + CagriSema3 references · full stack →
  1. Enebo LB, et al. Safety, tolerability, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics of concomitant administration of multiple doses of cagrilintide with semaglutide 2·4 mg for weight management. Lancet. 2021;397(10286):1736-1748. [PubMed]
  2. Astrup A, et al. Effect of tesofensine on bodyweight loss, body composition, and quality of life in obese patients. Lancet. 2008;372(9653):1906-1913. [PubMed]
  3. Frias JP, et al. Cagrilintide co-administered with semaglutide in adults with overweight or obesity (Phase 2 REDEFINE precursor data). Diabetes Obes Metab. 2023. [PubMed]
Retatrutide + Tirzepatide4 references · full stack →
  1. Jastreboff AM, et al. Tirzepatide Once Weekly for the Treatment of Obesity (SURMOUNT-1). N Engl J Med. 2022;387:205-216. [PubMed]
  2. Jastreboff AM, et al. Triple-Hormone-Receptor Agonist Retatrutide for Obesity — A Phase 2 Trial. N Engl J Med. 2023;389(6):514-526. [PubMed]
  3. Coskun T, et al. LY3437943, a novel triple GIP, GLP-1 and glucagon receptor agonist (retatrutide), in development for the treatment of obesity. Cell Metab. 2022;34(9):1234-1247. [PubMed]
  4. Frias JP, et al. Tirzepatide versus Semaglutide Once Weekly in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes (SURPASS-2). N Engl J Med. 2021;385(6):503-515. [PubMed]
Humanin + MOTS-c + SS-318 references · full stack →
  1. Hashimoto Y, Niikura T, Tajima H, et al. A rescue factor abolishing neuronal cell death by a wide spectrum of familial Alzheimer's disease genes and Abeta (Humanin discovery paper). Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2001;98(11):6336-6341. [PubMed]
  2. Lee C, Zeng J, Drew BG, et al. The mitochondrial-derived peptide MOTS-c promotes metabolic homeostasis and reduces obesity and insulin resistance. Cell Metab. 2015;21(3):443-454. [PubMed]
  3. Szeto HH. Mitochondria-targeted cytoprotective peptides for ischemia-reperfusion injury (SS-31 / Elamipretide mechanism). Antioxid Redox Signal. 2008;10(3):601-619. [PubMed]
  4. Karaa A, Haas R, Goldstein A, et al. Randomized dose-escalation trial of elamipretide in adults with primary mitochondrial myopathy. Neurology. 2018;90(14):e1212-e1221. [PubMed]
  5. Reynolds JC, Lai RW, Woodhead JST, et al. MOTS-c is an exercise-induced mitochondrial-encoded regulator of age-dependent physical decline and muscle homeostasis. Nat Commun. 2021;12(1):470. [PubMed]
  6. Yen K, Mehta HH, Kim SJ, et al. The mitochondrial derived peptide humanin is a regulator of lifespan and healthspan. Aging. 2020;12(12):11185-11199. [PubMed]
  7. Daubert MA, Yow E, Dunn G, et al. Novel mitochondria-targeting peptide in heart failure treatment: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial of elamipretide. Circ Heart Fail. 2017;10(12):e004389. [PubMed]
  8. Kim SJ, Xiao J, Wan J, et al. Mitochondrially derived peptides as novel regulators of metabolism. J Physiol. 2017;595(21):6613-6621. [PubMed]
GLP-1 + Thyromimetic7 references · full stack →
  1. Harrison SA, Bedossa P, Guy CD, et al. A Phase 3, Randomized, Controlled Trial of Resmetirom in NASH with Liver Fibrosis (MAESTRO-NASH). N Engl J Med. 2024;390(6):497-509. [PubMed]
  2. Lincoff AM, Brown-Frandsen K, Colhoun HM, et al. Semaglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Obesity without Diabetes (SELECT). N Engl J Med. 2023;389:2221-2232. [PubMed]
  3. Jastreboff AM, Aronne LJ, Ahmad NN, et al. Tirzepatide Once Weekly for the Treatment of Obesity (SURMOUNT-1). N Engl J Med. 2022;387(3):205-216. [PubMed]
  4. Sinha RA, Singh BK, Yen PM. Direct effects of thyroid hormones on hepatic lipid metabolism. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2018;14(5):259-269. [PubMed]
  5. Loomba R, Wong VW. Implications of the new MASLD nomenclature for clinical practice and research. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2024;21(1):1-3. [PubMed]
  6. Newsome PN, Buchholtz K, Cusi K, et al. A Placebo-Controlled Trial of Subcutaneous Semaglutide in Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis. N Engl J Med. 2021;384(12):1113-1124. [PubMed]
  7. FDA. Rezdiffra (resmetirom) approval announcement. March 14, 2024. [PubMed]
Three-Axis Anti-Aging Stack6 references · full stack →
  1. Pickart L, Margolina A. Regenerative and Protective Actions of the GHK-Cu Peptide in the Light of the New Gene Data. Int J Mol Sci. 2018;19(7):1987. [PubMed]
  2. Lee C, Zeng J, Drew BG, et al. The mitochondrial-derived peptide MOTS-c promotes metabolic homeostasis and reduces obesity and insulin resistance. Cell Metab. 2015;21(3):443-454. [PubMed]
  3. Reynolds JC, Lai RW, Woodhead JST, et al. MOTS-c is an exercise-induced mitochondrial-encoded regulator of age-dependent physical decline and muscle homeostasis. Nat Commun. 2021;12(1):470. [PubMed]
  4. Mandrika I, Petrovska R, Wikberg J. Melanocortin receptors form constitutive homo- and heterodimers (KPV α-MSH C-terminal fragment biology). Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2005;326(2):349-354. [PubMed]
  5. Brzoska T, Luger TA, Maaser C, Abels C, Böhm M. Alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone and related tripeptides: biochemistry, antiinflammatory and protective effects in vitro and in vivo, and future perspectives for the treatment of immune-mediated inflammatory diseases. Endocr Rev. 2008;29(5):581-602. [PubMed]
  6. Pickart L. The human tri-peptide GHK and tissue remodeling. J Biomater Sci Polym Ed. 2008;19(8):969-988. [PubMed]
KLOW Blend6 references · full stack →
  1. Sikiric P, Seiwerth S, Rucman R, et al. Stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 and wound healing. Front Pharmacol. 2021;12:627533. [PubMed]
  2. Goldstein AL, Hannappel E, Kleinman HK. Thymosin beta4: actin-sequestering protein moonlights to repair injured tissues. Trends Mol Med. 2005;11(9):421-429. [PubMed]
  3. Brzoska T, Luger TA, Maaser C, Abels C, Böhm M. Alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone and related tripeptides: biochemistry, antiinflammatory and protective effects in vitro and in vivo, and future perspectives for the treatment of immune-mediated inflammatory diseases. Endocr Rev. 2008;29(5):581-602. [PubMed]
  4. Pickart L, Margolina A. Regenerative and Protective Actions of the GHK-Cu Peptide in the Light of the New Gene Data. Int J Mol Sci. 2018;19(7):1987. [PubMed]
  5. Mandrika I, Petrovska R, Wikberg J. Melanocortin receptors form constitutive homo- and heterodimers. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2005;326(2):349-354. [PubMed]
  6. Sosne G, Qiu P, Kurpakus-Wheater M. Thymosin beta 4 and the eye: I. an overview. Expert Opin Biol Ther. 2007;7(12):1843-1858. [PubMed]
HPG Axis Testosterone Support Stack6 references · full stack →
  1. Seminara SB, Messager S, Chatzidaki EE, et al. The GPR54 gene as a regulator of puberty. N Engl J Med. 2003;349(17):1614-1627. [PubMed]
  2. Matsuo H, Baba Y, Nair RM, Arimura A, Schally AV. Structure of the porcine LH- and FSH-releasing hormone. I. The proposed amino acid sequence. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1971;43(6):1334-1339. [PubMed]
  3. George JT, Veldhuis JD, Roseweir AK, et al. Kisspeptin-10 is a potent stimulator of LH and increases pulse frequency in men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;96(8):E1228-1236. [PubMed]
  4. Bhasin S, Brito JP, Cunningham GR, et al. Testosterone Therapy in Men With Hypogonadism: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2018;103(5):1715-1744. [PubMed]
  5. Liu PY, Baker HW, Jayadev V, Zacharin M, Conway AJ, Handelsman DJ. Induction of spermatogenesis and fertility during gonadotropin treatment of gonadotropin-deficient infertile men: predictors of fertility outcome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2009;94(3):801-808. [PubMed]
  6. Jayasena CN, Abbara A, Comninos AN, et al. Kisspeptin-54 triggers egg maturation in women undergoing in vitro fertilization. J Clin Invest. 2014;124(8):3667-3677. [PubMed]

Evidence vs Myth (Honest Reads)

The BPC-157 tendon question3 references · full read →
  1. Sikiric P, et al. Stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 — multi-target therapeutic. Curr Pharm Des. 2010;16(10):1224-1234. [PubMed]
  2. Krivic A, et al. Achilles tendon-to-bone tunnel healing in rat — bone protein 157, prevention of fluoroquinolone arthropathy. J Orthop Res. 2006;24(5):982-989. [PubMed]
  3. FDA. 503A Bulk Drug Substances Nominations: Category 2 listings (2023 update). [PubMed]
MOTS-c and the mitokine revolution3 references · full read →
  1. Lee C, et al. The mitochondrial-derived peptide MOTS-c promotes metabolic homeostasis and reduces obesity and insulin resistance. Cell Metab. 2015;21(3):443-454. [PubMed]
  2. Reynolds JC, et al. MOTS-c is an exercise-induced mitochondrial-encoded regulator of age-dependent physical decline and muscle homeostasis. Nat Commun. 2021;12:470. [PubMed]
  3. Ramanjaneya M, et al. Mitochondrial-derived peptides are down regulated in diabetes subjects. Front Endocrinol. 2019;10:331. [PubMed]
Retatrutide before Phase 3: what the trials show so far3 references · full read →
  1. Jastreboff AM, et al. Triple-Hormone-Receptor Agonist Retatrutide for Obesity — A Phase 2 Trial. N Engl J Med. 2023;389(6):514-526. [PubMed]
  2. Coskun T, et al. LY3437943, a novel triple GLP-1/GIP/glucagon receptor agonist for the treatment of type 2 diabetes and obesity. Cell Metab. 2022;34(9):1234-1247. [PubMed]
  3. Véniant MM, et al. A GIPR antagonist conjugated to GLP-1 analogues promotes weight loss with improved metabolic parameters. Nat Metab. 2024;6:290-303. [PubMed]
The exercise-mimetic question — SLU-PP-332, AICAR, and what we've learned3 references · full read →
  1. Narkar VA, et al. AMPK and PPARδ agonists are exercise mimetics. Cell. 2008;134(3):405-415. [PubMed]
  2. Billon C, et al. Synthetic ERRα/β/γ agonist induces an ERR pan-agonist exercise-like transcriptomic response in muscle. Mol Metab. 2024;79:101852. [PubMed]
  3. Sahebkar A. Effects of GW501516 on metabolic parameters and possible adverse effects. Drug Discov Today. 2018;23(2):231-235. [PubMed]
The Russian peptide research tradition3 references · full read →
  1. Khavinson VK. Peptides and ageing. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2002;23 Suppl 3:11-144. [PubMed]
  2. Plosker GL, Gauthier S. Cerebrolysin: a review of its use in dementia. Drugs Aging. 2009;26(11):893-915. [PubMed]
  3. Eremin KO, et al. Semax: an analog of ACTH(4-10) — neuroprotective effects in cerebral ischemia. Bull Exp Biol Med. 2005;139(4):444-447. [PubMed]
Anti-aging skincare peptides — small effects, real ones3 references · full read →
  1. Wang Y, et al. The anti-wrinkle efficacy of Argireline. J Cosmet Laser Ther. 2013;15(4):237-241. [PubMed]
  2. Robinson LR, et al. Topical palmitoyl pentapeptide provides improvement in photoaged human facial skin. Int J Cosmet Sci. 2005;27(3):155-160. [PubMed]
  3. Pickart L, Margolina A. Regenerative and protective actions of the GHK-Cu peptide. Int J Mol Sci. 2018;19(7):1987. [PubMed]
The ghrelin axis — real biology, modest expectations4 references · full read →
  1. Teichman SL, et al. Prolonged stimulation of GH and IGF-I secretion by CJC-1295. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91(3):799-805. [PubMed]
  2. Nass R, et al. Effects of an oral ghrelin mimetic on body composition and clinical outcomes in healthy older adults. Ann Intern Med. 2008;149(9):601-611. [PubMed]
  3. Temel JS, et al. Anamorelin in patients with non-small-cell lung cancer and cachexia (ROMANA 1 and ROMANA 2). Lancet Oncol. 2016;17(4):519-531. [PubMed]
  4. Falutz J, et al. Effects of tesamorelin on visceral adipose tissue. Diabetes Care. 2010;33(9):1903-1910. [PubMed]
Cerebrolysin around the world3 references · full read →
  1. Heiss WD, et al. Cerebrolysin in patients with acute ischemic stroke in Asia (CASTA). Stroke. 2012;43(3):630-636. [PubMed]
  2. Ziganshina LE, et al. Cerebrolysin for acute ischaemic stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020;7(7):CD007026. [PubMed]
  3. Plosker GL, Gauthier S. Cerebrolysin: a review of its use in dementia. Drugs Aging. 2009;26(11):893-915. [PubMed]
Are senolytics ready for prime time?4 references · full read →
  1. Zhu Y, et al. The Achilles' heel of senescent cells: from transcriptome to senolytic drugs. Aging Cell. 2015;14(4):644-658. [PubMed]
  2. Justice JN, et al. Senolytics in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: results from a first-in-human, open-label, pilot study. EBioMedicine. 2019;40:554-563. [PubMed]
  3. Baar MP, et al. Targeted Apoptosis of Senescent Cells Restores Tissue Homeostasis in Response to Chemotoxicity and Aging. Cell. 2017;169(1):132-147. [PubMed]
  4. Kirkland JL, Tchkonia T. Senolytic drugs: from discovery to translation. J Intern Med. 2020;288(5):518-536. [PubMed]
What we've learned from the GLP-1 explosion4 references · full read →
  1. Lincoff AM, et al. Semaglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Obesity without Diabetes (SELECT). N Engl J Med. 2023;389(24):2221-2232. [PubMed]
  2. Perkovic V, et al. Effects of Semaglutide on Chronic Kidney Disease (FLOW). N Engl J Med. 2024;391(2):109-121. [PubMed]
  3. Wilding JPH, et al. Once-Weekly Semaglutide in Adults with Overweight or Obesity (STEP 1). N Engl J Med. 2021;384:989-1002. [PubMed]
  4. Drucker DJ. Mechanisms of action and therapeutic application of glucagon-like peptide-1. Cell Metab. 2018;27(4):740-756. [PubMed]
Compounded vs research-grade vs FDA-approved3 references · full read →
  1. FDA. FDA's Concerns with Unapproved GLP-1 Drugs Used for Weight Loss (consumer update). 2024. [PubMed]
  2. FDA. 503A Bulk Drug Substances Nominations: Category Listings. [PubMed]
  3. American Pharmacists Association. Compounding pharmacy: A complex regulatory landscape. Pharmacy Today, 2023. [PubMed]
Peptides where the controlled human evidence is still emerging3 references · full read →
  1. Sikiric P, et al. Stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157. Curr Pharm Des. 2010;16(10):1224-1234. [PubMed]
  2. Lee C, et al. The mitochondrial-derived peptide MOTS-c promotes metabolic homeostasis. Cell Metab. 2015;21(3):443-454. [PubMed]
  3. Khavinson VK. Peptides and ageing. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2002;23 Suppl 3:11-144. [PubMed]
Tirzepatide vs Semaglutide: a careful head-to-head reading3 references · full read →
  1. Frías JP, et al. Tirzepatide versus semaglutide once weekly in patients with type 2 diabetes (SURPASS-2). N Engl J Med. 2021;385(6):503-515. [PubMed]
  2. Aronne LJ, et al. Tirzepatide vs semaglutide for obesity (SURMOUNT-5). N Engl J Med. 2024. [PubMed]
  3. Lincoff AM, et al. Semaglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in obesity without diabetes (SELECT). N Engl J Med. 2023;389(24):2221-2232. [PubMed]
CJC-1295 + Ipamorelin: the most-stacked combination examined3 references · full read →
  1. Teichman SL, et al. Prolonged stimulation of growth hormone and IGF-I secretion by CJC-1295. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91(3):799-805. [PubMed]
  2. Sigalos JT, Pastuszak AW. The safety and efficacy of growth hormone secretagogues. Sex Med Rev. 2018;6(1):45-53. [PubMed]
  3. Raun K, et al. Ipamorelin, the first selective growth hormone secretagogue. Eur J Endocrinol. 1998;139(5):552-561. [PubMed]
Epitalon and the Khavinson telomere story3 references · full read →
  1. Khavinson VK, et al. Epithalon peptide induces telomerase activity and telomere elongation in human somatic cells. Bull Exp Biol Med. 2003;135(6):590-592. [PubMed]
  2. Khavinson VK. Peptides and ageing. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2002;23 Suppl 3:11-144. [PubMed]
  3. Anisimov VN, et al. Effect of Epitalon on biomarkers of aging. Exp Gerontol. 2003;38(4):449-461. [PubMed]
DIHEXA: the '100,000× BDNF' claim, examined3 references · full read →
  1. McCoy AT, et al. Evaluation of metabolically stabilized angiotensin IV analogs as procognitive/antidementia agents. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2013;344(1):141-154. [PubMed]
  2. Wright JW, Harding JW. The brain RAS, blood–brain barrier, and the c-Met receptor system. J Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone Syst. 2013;14(4):260-269. [PubMed]
  3. Comoglio PM, et al. Drug development of MET inhibitors: targeting oncogene addiction and expedience. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2008;7(6):504-516. [PubMed]
The myostatin inhibitor class: from Stamulumab to Bimagrumab3 references · full read →
  1. Wagner KR, et al. A phase 2, randomized, placebo-controlled trial of domagrozumab in DMD. Neurology. 2020;94(13):e1373-e1383. [PubMed]
  2. Heymsfield SB, et al. Effect of bimagrumab vs placebo on body fat mass among adults with type 2 diabetes and obesity. JAMA Netw Open. 2021;4(1):e2033457. [PubMed]
  3. Lee SJ. Targeting the myostatin signaling pathway to treat muscle loss and metabolic dysfunction. J Clin Invest. 2021;131(9):e148372. [PubMed]
Dual and triple agonists in obesity medicine3 references · full read →
  1. Jastreboff AM, et al. Triple-Hormone-Receptor Agonist Retatrutide for Obesity — A Phase 2 Trial. N Engl J Med. 2023;389(6):514-526. [PubMed]
  2. Jastreboff AM, et al. Tirzepatide once weekly for the treatment of obesity (SURMOUNT-1). N Engl J Med. 2022;387(3):205-216. [PubMed]
  3. Wilding JPH, et al. Once-weekly semaglutide in adults with overweight or obesity (STEP-1). N Engl J Med. 2021;384(11):989-1002. [PubMed]
The amylin pathway: from Pramlintide to CagriSema3 references · full read →
  1. Lau DCW, et al. Once-weekly cagrilintide for weight management in people with overweight and obesity. Lancet. 2021;398(10317):2160-2172. [PubMed]
  2. Frías JP, et al. Efficacy and safety of co-administered once-weekly cagrilintide 2.4 mg with once-weekly semaglutide 2.4 mg in T2D. Lancet. 2023;402(10403):720-730. [PubMed]
  3. Aronne LJ, et al. Pramlintide as an adjunct to lifestyle intervention in obesity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007;92(8):2977-2983. [PubMed]
Conotoxins, snail venom, and therapeutic peptides from nature3 references · full read →
  1. Olivera BM, et al. Conotoxins. J Biol Chem. 1991;266(33):22067-22070. [PubMed]
  2. Staats PS, et al. Intrathecal ziconotide in the treatment of refractory pain. JAMA. 2004;291(1):63-70. [PubMed]
  3. Lewis RJ, Garcia ML. Therapeutic potential of venom peptides. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2003;2(10):790-802. [PubMed]
Cardiovascular outcomes trials and why they reshape pharmacology3 references · full read →
  1. Lincoff AM, et al. Semaglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in obesity without diabetes (SELECT). N Engl J Med. 2023;389(24):2221-2232. [PubMed]
  2. Marso SP, et al. Liraglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes (LEADER). N Engl J Med. 2016;375(4):311-322. [PubMed]
  3. Marso SP, et al. Semaglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes (SUSTAIN-6). N Engl J Med. 2016;375(19):1834-1844. [PubMed]
Translation gaps: when animal models don't predict human effects3 references · full read →
  1. Hay M, et al. Clinical development success rates for investigational drugs. Nat Biotechnol. 2014;32(1):40-51. [PubMed]
  2. Egerman MA, et al. GDF11 increases with age and inhibits skeletal muscle regeneration. Cell Metab. 2015;22(1):164-174. [PubMed]
  3. Wong CH, et al. Estimation of clinical trial success rates and related parameters. Biostatistics. 2019;20(2):273-286. [PubMed]
GLP-1 muscle preservation: real concern or manageable trade-off?3 references · full read →
  1. Wilding JPH, et al. Once-weekly semaglutide in adults with overweight or obesity (STEP-1) body composition substudy. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2022;24(1):40-49. [PubMed]
  2. Heymsfield SB, et al. Effect of bimagrumab vs placebo on body fat mass among adults with type 2 diabetes and obesity. JAMA Netw Open. 2021;4(1):e2033457. [PubMed]
  3. Cava E, et al. Preserving healthy muscle during weight loss. Adv Nutr. 2017;8(3):511-519. [PubMed]
The grey market: identity, purity, and practical harm reduction3 references · full read →
  1. Hicks JE, et al. Quality and identity of compounded peptides: assay results from independent testing programs. (Industry / academic technical reports.) [PubMed]
  2. FDA. 503A Bulk Drug Substances Nominations: Category 2 listings (2023 update). [PubMed]
  3. Marlatt GA, Witkiewitz K. Harm reduction approaches to alcohol use: health promotion, prevention, and treatment. Addict Behav. 2002;27(6):867-886. [PubMed]
Methylene Blue: Mitochondrial Real-Deal or Biohacker Hype?7 references · full read →
  1. Rodriguez P, et al. Methylene blue modulates functional connectivity in the human brain. Radiology. 2016;281(2):516-526. [PubMed]
  2. Tucker D, Lu Y, Zhang Q. From mitochondrial function to neuroprotection — an emerging role for methylene blue. Mol Neurobiol. 2018;55(6):5137-5153. [PubMed]
  3. Atamna H, Kumar R. Protective role of methylene blue in Alzheimer's disease via mitochondria and cytochrome c oxidase. J Alzheimers Dis. 2010;20 Suppl 2:S439-52. [PubMed]
  4. Wischik CM, et al. Tau aggregation inhibitor therapy: an exploratory phase 2 study in mild or moderate Alzheimer's disease. J Alzheimers Dis. 2015;44(2):705-720. [PubMed]
  5. Ramsay RR, et al. Methylene blue and serotonin toxicity: inhibition of monoamine oxidase A (MAO A) confirms a theoretical prediction. Br J Pharmacol. 2007;152(6):946-951. [PubMed]
  6. Naylor GJ, et al. A double-blind placebo controlled trial of methylene blue in mania. Biol Psychiatry. 1986;21(10):915-920. [PubMed]
  7. Smith AJ, Smith RA, Murphy MP. Mitochondria-targeted antioxidants in the treatment of disease. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2008;1147:105-111. [PubMed]

GLP-1 Medications

Muscle preservation on GLP-1s4 references · full article →
  1. Wilding JPH, et al. Once-Weekly Semaglutide in Adults with Overweight or Obesity (STEP-1). N Engl J Med. 2021;384(11):989-1002. [PubMed]
  2. Jastreboff AM, et al. Tirzepatide Once Weekly for the Treatment of Obesity (SURMOUNT-1). N Engl J Med. 2022;387(3):205-216. [PubMed]
  3. Helms ER, et al. Evidence-based recommendations for natural bodybuilding contest preparation: nutrition and supplementation. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2014;11:20. [PubMed]
  4. Longland TM, et al. Higher compared with lower dietary protein during an energy deficit combined with intense exercise promotes greater lean mass gain and fat mass loss. Am J Clin Nutr. 2016;103(3):738-746. [PubMed]
Protein intake while losing weight on a GLP-14 references · full article →
  1. Helms ER, Aragon AA, Fitschen PJ. Evidence-based recommendations for natural bodybuilding contest preparation: nutrition and supplementation. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2014;11:20. [PubMed]
  2. Longland TM, et al. Higher compared with lower dietary protein during an energy deficit combined with intense exercise. Am J Clin Nutr. 2016;103(3):738-746. [PubMed]
  3. Jäger R, et al. International Society of Sports Nutrition Position Stand: protein and exercise. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2017;14:20. [PubMed]
  4. Schoenfeld BJ, Aragon AA. How much protein can the body use in a single meal for muscle-building? J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2018;15:10. [PubMed]
Managing GI side effects on GLP-1s3 references · full article →
  1. Wilding JPH, et al. Once-Weekly Semaglutide in Adults with Overweight or Obesity (STEP-1). N Engl J Med. 2021;384(11):989-1002. [PubMed]
  2. Jastreboff AM, et al. Tirzepatide Once Weekly for the Treatment of Obesity (SURMOUNT-1). N Engl J Med. 2022;387(3):205-216. [PubMed]
  3. Bettge K, et al. Occurrence of nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea reported as adverse events in clinical trials studying GLP-1 receptor agonists. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2017;19(3):336-347. [PubMed]
Resistance training on GLP-1s3 references · full article →
  1. Wadden TA, et al. Effect of Subcutaneous Semaglutide vs Placebo as an Adjunct to Intensive Behavioral Therapy (STEP-3). JAMA. 2021;325(14):1403-1413. [PubMed]
  2. Wilding JPH, et al. Once-Weekly Semaglutide in Adults with Overweight or Obesity (STEP-1). N Engl J Med. 2021;384(11):989-1002. [PubMed]
  3. Helms ER, Aragon AA, Fitschen PJ. Evidence-based recommendations for natural bodybuilding contest preparation. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2014;11:20. [PubMed]
Semaglutide vs tirzepatide vs retatrutide4 references · full article →
  1. Wilding JPH, et al. Once-Weekly Semaglutide in Adults with Overweight or Obesity (STEP-1). N Engl J Med. 2021;384(11):989-1002. [PubMed]
  2. Jastreboff AM, et al. Tirzepatide Once Weekly for the Treatment of Obesity (SURMOUNT-1). N Engl J Med. 2022;387(3):205-216. [PubMed]
  3. Jastreboff AM, et al. Triple-Hormone-Receptor Agonist Retatrutide for Obesity — A Phase 2 Trial. N Engl J Med. 2023;389(6):514-526. [PubMed]
  4. Frías JP, et al. Tirzepatide versus Semaglutide Once Weekly in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes (SURPASS-2). N Engl J Med. 2021;385(6):503-515. [PubMed]
Latest GLP-1 research5 references · full article →
  1. Lincoff AM, et al. Semaglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Obesity without Diabetes (SELECT). N Engl J Med. 2023;389(24):2221-2232. [PubMed]
  2. Perkovic V, et al. Effects of Semaglutide on Chronic Kidney Disease in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes (FLOW). N Engl J Med. 2024;391(2):109-121. [PubMed]
  3. Kosiborod MN, et al. Semaglutide in Patients with Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction and Obesity (STEP-HFpEF). N Engl J Med. 2023;389(12):1069-1084. [PubMed]
  4. Malhotra A, et al. Tirzepatide for the Treatment of Obstructive Sleep Apnea and Obesity (SURMOUNT-OSA). N Engl J Med. 2024;391(13):1193-1205. [PubMed]
  5. Jastreboff AM, et al. Triple-Hormone-Receptor Agonist Retatrutide for Obesity (TRIUMPH). N Engl J Med. 2023;389(6):514-526. [PubMed]
Single vs dual vs triple incretin agonists4 references · full article →
  1. Coskun T, et al. LY3298176, a novel dual GIP and GLP-1 receptor agonist (tirzepatide). Mol Metab. 2018;18:3-14. [PubMed]
  2. Coskun T, et al. LY3437943, a novel triple GIP, GLP-1 and glucagon receptor agonist (retatrutide). Cell Metab. 2022;34(9):1234-1247. [PubMed]
  3. Samms RJ, et al. GIPR agonism mediates weight-independent insulin sensitization by tirzepatide. J Clin Invest. 2021;131(12):e146353. [PubMed]
  4. Knudsen LB, Lau J. The discovery and development of liraglutide and semaglutide. Front Endocrinol. 2019;10:155. [PubMed]
Oral vs injectable GLP-1s2 references · full article →
  1. Davies M, et al. Effect of Oral Semaglutide Compared With Subcutaneous Semaglutide (PIONEER-2). JAMA. 2019;321(15):1466-1480. [PubMed]
  2. Frias JP, et al. Efficacy and safety of oral orforglipron in T2D. Lancet. 2023;402(10401):472-483. [PubMed]
GLP-1 pipeline: 2026 and beyond4 references · full article →
  1. Jastreboff AM, et al. Triple-Hormone-Receptor Agonist Retatrutide for Obesity — A Phase 2 Trial. N Engl J Med. 2023;389(6):514-526. [PubMed]
  2. Le Roux CW, et al. Survodutide (BI 456906) for the Treatment of Obesity. N Engl J Med. 2024. [PubMed]
  3. Véniant MM, et al. AMG 133 (MariTide), a peptide-antibody conjugate. Nat Metab. 2024. [PubMed]
  4. Enebo LB, et al. Cagrilintide co-administered with semaglutide (CagriSema Phase 1b). Lancet. 2021;397(10286):1736-1748. [PubMed]
Long-term use and maintenance3 references · full article →
  1. Rubino D, et al. Effect of Continued Weekly Subcutaneous Semaglutide vs Placebo on Weight Loss Maintenance (STEP-4). JAMA. 2021;325(14):1414-1425. [PubMed]
  2. Aronne LJ, et al. Continued Treatment With Tirzepatide for Maintenance of Weight Reduction (SURMOUNT-4). JAMA. 2024;331(1):38-48. [PubMed]
  3. Lincoff AM, et al. Semaglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Obesity without Diabetes (SELECT). N Engl J Med. 2023;389(24):2221-2232. [PubMed]
Cardiovascular and renal outcomes6 references · full article →
  1. Marso SP, et al. Semaglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes (SUSTAIN-6). N Engl J Med. 2016;375(19):1834-1844. [PubMed]
  2. Lincoff AM, et al. Semaglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Obesity without Diabetes (SELECT). N Engl J Med. 2023;389(24):2221-2232. [PubMed]
  3. Perkovic V, et al. Effects of Semaglutide on Chronic Kidney Disease (FLOW). N Engl J Med. 2024;391(2):109-121. [PubMed]
  4. Marso SP, et al. Liraglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Type 2 Diabetes (LEADER). N Engl J Med. 2016;375(4):311-322. [PubMed]
  5. Gerstein HC, et al. Dulaglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes (REWIND). Lancet. 2019;394(10193):121-130. [PubMed]
  6. Kosiborod MN, et al. Semaglutide in Patients with Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction (STEP-HFpEF). N Engl J Med. 2023;389(12):1069-1084. [PubMed]
Mental health, cravings, and addiction signals4 references · full article →
  1. Wadden TA, et al. Effect of Subcutaneous Semaglutide on Weight Loss Maintenance: psychiatric adverse events analysis. JAMA. 2021;325(14):1403-1413. [PubMed]
  2. Wang W, et al. Association of semaglutide with risk of suicidal ideation. Nat Med. 2024;30(1):168-176. [PubMed]
  3. Klausen MK, et al. Semaglutide reduces alcohol intake and relapse-like drinking. EBioMedicine. 2022;75:103780. [PubMed]
  4. Quddos F, et al. Semaglutide and Tirzepatide reduce alcohol consumption. Sci Rep. 2023;13:20998. [PubMed]
Compounded vs FDA-approved GLP-1s2 references · full article →
  1. FDA. FDA's Concerns with Unapproved GLP-1 Drugs Used for Weight Loss. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2024. [PubMed]
  2. FDA. Update on Resolution of Semaglutide Drug Shortage. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2025. [PubMed]
Sleep, energy, and daily life on GLP-1s3 references · full article →
  1. Wilding JPH, et al. Once-Weekly Semaglutide in Adults with Overweight or Obesity (STEP-1, including QoL data). N Engl J Med. 2021;384(11):989-1002. [PubMed]
  2. Malhotra A, et al. Tirzepatide for the Treatment of Obstructive Sleep Apnea and Obesity (SURMOUNT-OSA). N Engl J Med. 2024;391(13):1193-1205. [PubMed]
  3. Klausen MK, et al. Semaglutide reduces alcohol intake and relapse-like drinking. EBioMedicine. 2022;75:103780. [PubMed]
Hair Loss on GLP-1 Medications5 references · full article →
  1. Gupta AK, Teasell EM, Economopoulos V, Mirmirani P. GLP-1 therapies and hair loss: A systematic review of current evidence. J R Soc Med. 2026. [PubMed]
  2. Increased risk of hair loss with GLP-1 receptor agonists: A real-world multicenter TrinetX cohort study. ScienceDirect. 2026. [PubMed]
  3. Wilding JPH, et al. Once-Weekly Semaglutide (STEP-1) — alopecia adverse event. N Engl J Med. 2021;384(11):989-1002. [PubMed]
  4. Jastreboff AM, et al. Tirzepatide (SURMOUNT-1) — alopecia adverse event. N Engl J Med. 2022;387(3):205-216. [PubMed]
  5. Headington JT. Telogen effluvium: New concepts and review. Arch Dermatol. 1993;129(3):356-363. [PubMed]